Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Employment training and career guidance

Reported Speech: Functions and Tense Changes

1. Reporting Verbs and Functions

The choice of reporting verb depends on the function of the original statement:

• Orders: ordered (followed by infinitive).
• Requests (Peticiones): asked (often used for 'could' or 'please').
• Advice (Consejo): advised (often used for 'should' or 'in my opinion').
• Offers (Ofertas): offered (often used for 'would you like').
• Suggestions (Sugerencias): Use the structure Subject + suggested + V-ing (Used for phrases like 'let's', 'what about', 'why don't we', or 'how about').

2. Tense and Modal Shifts

When converting direct speech to indirect speech, tenses and modals typically shift backward:

Tense Shifts (Direct → Indirect)

• Present Simple (PR.S.) → Past Simple (PS.S.)
• Present

The Picture of Dorian Gray

Basil's Demise

On the eve of Dorian Gray's thirty-eighth birthday, he encountered his friend Basil Hallward, who was about to depart for Paris. Basil, concerned about the rumors surrounding Dorian's reputation, expressed his desire to see Dorian's soul. Dorian reluctantly revealed his portrait to Basil. In a fit of rage, Dorian stabbed Basil to death.

The Aftermath of Murder

The following morning, Dorian enlisted the help of Alan Campbell, an old friend, to dispose of Basil's body. Initially reluctant, Alan eventually agreed after Dorian presented him with an incriminating document. Together, they concealed the evidence of the crime.

A Chance Encounter

Seeking solace in opium, Dorian ventured into a den where he encountered...

Pre-War Foundations of Galician Language (1906-1923)

Significant events occurred during the subsequent years:

• 1906: Foundation of the Real Academia Galega (Royal Galician Academy).
• 1916: Creation of the first Irmandades da Fala (Brotherhoods of the Language) in A Coruña. These associations sought to defend, diffuse, and promote the use of Galician. With them, Galician nationalism emerged, fostering a tendency to use the language systematically and exclusively for all types of writings.
• 1920: Creation of the magazine Nós, which gave its name to the group that founded it, defining a literary generation and a historical period of Galician culture.
• 1923: Constitution of the Seminario de Estudos Galegos (Seminar of Galician Studies) in Santiago de

Causative Verbs: Have and Get + Object + V3

Affirmative Structures

This section details the use of have and get followed by an object and the past participle (V3) across various tenses to express actions done for someone by another person.

Communication Idioms and Phrases

• Chinese whispers (el joc del telèfon): Misinformation spread through retelling.
• Get hold of: Localitzar (To locate or contact someone).
• Get/give the low-down: Donar tots els detalls (To give or receive detailed information).
• Hear through the grapevine: Sentir de forma informal (To hear news unofficially).
• Hit the airwaves: Fer públic (To broadcast on radio or TV).
• Megaphone diplomacy: Amenaçar públicament, no directament (Public threats instead of direct negotiation).
• Out of touch: Estar desconnectat d’algú (Not knowing recent developments).
• Put someone in the picture: Posar al dia algú sobre un tema (To inform someone).
• Spread like wildfire: Estendre’s com la pólvora (To spread very quickly).
• Stool pigeon:

Marketing and Advertising Vocabulary

Key Marketing Terms

• Launch a marketing campaign: Lanzar una campaña de publicidad.
• Freebies: Regalos publicitarios.
• Cold calls: Llamadas en frío / Teleoperador.
• Endorse: Promocionar / Avalar.
• Brand name: Nombre de marca.
• Billboards: Valla publicitaria.
• Word-of-mouth publicity: Publicidad de boca en boca (publicidad social).
• Banners: Pancarta / Banner.

Descriptive Adjectives and Polysemous Words

Compound Adjectives for Situations

• Soul-destroying: Desmoralizador.
• Heart-stopping: Situación de infarto.
• Heart-warming: Situación reconfortante.
• Hair-raising: Horroroso y emocionante.
• Breakneck: A toda velocidad.
• Ear-splitting: Ensordecedor (te rompe los oídos).
• Eye-opening: Situación reveladora.
• Eye-catching: Atractivo / Llamativo.

English Grammar: Perfect Tenses and Modals

Perfect Tense Structures

• Present Perfect Simple: I have heard ... / Have I heard...?
• Present Perfect Continuous: I have been -ing ... / Have I been -ing...?
• Past Perfect Simple: I had -ed ... / Had I -ed...?
• Past Perfect Continuous: I had been -ing ... / Had I been -ing...?

Common Time Expressions

For, since, just, already, yet, by the time.

Modal Verbs and Obligations

• Should / Ought to: Advice (Hauries de)
• Must / Have to: Obligation (Has de)

Essential Vocabulary: Media, Crime, and Adjectives

Media and Journalism Terminology

Broadcast media

Mitjans audiovisuals

Broadsheets

Diari gran

Browse

Explorar

Channel hop

Canviar canal

Chat shows

Programa de famosos

Documentary

Documental

Mobile phone alerts

Alerta SMS

News bulletin

Butlletí

English Tenses: Usage and Structure

Present Perfect Simple vs. Past Simple

Present Perfect Simple

• Structure: Subject + have/has + (not) + Past Participle. Question: Have/Has + Subject + Past Participle.
• Usage:
  • Actions started in the past and continuing now.
  • Finished actions with results relevant to the present.
• Time Markers: Already, since, just, for, yet, lately, ever, never.

Past Simple

• Structure: Subject + Verb + -ed (or irregular form). Negative: Subject + didn't + Verb (infinitive). Question: Did + Subject + Verb (infinitive).
• Usage:
  • Actions finished at a specific moment in the past.
  • Consecutive actions in the past.

Future Tenses

Future Simple (Will)

• Structure: Subject + will (not) + Verb (base form).
• Usage: Predictions, schedules, sudden decisions (e.

English Question Words (Wh-Words)

Who (quem)

Who is a subject pronoun used in questions.

Examples:

• Who is that beautiful girl? (Quem é aquela moça bonita?)
• Who likes soccer? (Quem gosta de futebol?)
• Who was playing with you? (Quem estava brincando com você?)

Whom (a quem)

Whom is an object pronoun used in questions (often formal).

Examples:

• Whom did you kiss at the party? (Quem você beijou na festa?)
• With whom did Peter go? (Com quem Peter foi?)

Whose (de quem)

Whose indicates possession.

Examples:

• Whose pencil is this? (De quem é este lápis?)
• Whose house is that? (De quem é aquela casa?)

Which (qual, quais)

Which is used when choosing between options.

Examples:

• Which of those men is your father? (Qual daqueles homens é seu pai?)
• Which sock do you prefer:

The Classical Era of Athens (5th Century BC)

The 5th century BC constituted the apex of the polis, highlighting the rivalry between Athens and Sparta.

The Polis of Athens

Athens was located in the region of Attica. The city stretched from the Acropolis, where the temples of the gods were situated, down to the base of the hill. The Agora (public square) was the center of urban life. The entire city was surrounded by a wall that connected it to the port of Piraeus.

Athenian Social Organization

Athenian society was based on slavery and was divided into distinct groups:

• Citizens: A very small group consisting of Athenian males over 20 years of age. Although economic differences existed among members, all citizens possessed the same political rights.
• Women: