Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Spanish

Modal Verbs

Verb Tenses

Simple Present

Use: habits, routines, general truths.

Frequency adverbs: always, usually, often, once/twice, every, sometimes, occasionally, generally, each, normally.

Positive: subject + base verb (e.g., I study business administration)

Negative: subject + don't/doesn't + base verb (e.g., I don't study business administration)

Questions: Do/Does + subject + base verb? (e.g., Do you study business administration?)

Present Continuous

Use: actions happening now, temporary situations.

Time expressions: now,... Continue reading "English Grammar Cheat Sheet" »

1B. Auxiliary Verbs

Verbs that support the main verb and provide grammatical information: am, are, is, do, does, did, have, has, was, were, would, should, will.

2A. Present Perfect Continuous vs. Simple

• Present Perfect Simple (PPS): Past actions with present relevance. Structure: Has/Have + Past Participle.
• Present Perfect Continuous (PPC): Actions started in the past that continue into the present. Structure: Has/Have + been + Verb-ing.

2B. Adjective Order

The standard order for adjectives is: Opinion, Size, Age, Shape, Color, Pattern, Origin, Material, Noun.

3A. Past Tenses

• Past Simple: Completed past actions (e.g., I walked).
• Past Continuous: Actions at specific moments in the past (e.g., Was/Were + Verb-ing).
• Past Perfect: Actions that occurred before

Steering and Maneuvering Commands

• What is your heading? (¿Cuál es su rumbo?)
• My heading is... degrees. (Mi rumbo es de... grados.)
• Port/starboard 10º: Hold 10º of port/starboard rudder. (A babor/estribor 10º, meter el timón 10º a estribor/babor y mantenerlo así.)
• Hard-a-port/starboard: Avoid allowing the vessel's head to go to port/starboard. (Todo a babor/estribor, meter el timón a babor/estribor y mantenerlo así.)
• Ease to five/ten/fifteen: Reduce amount of rudder to 5º/10º/15º/20º and hold. (Levante hasta cinco, diez, quince; reducir el ángulo del timón y mantenerlo así.)
• Report if she does not answer the wheel. (Avise si el buque no obedece el timón.)
• Steady on one eight two. (Derecho al uno ocho dos.)

Engine Room Commands

• (Port/

1. Medical Symptoms and Conditions

• To be swollen - Estar hinchado
• To be unconscious - Estar inconsciente
• Feel dizzy - Estar mareado/a
• Have a bruise - Tener un hematoma
• Have a rash - Tener sarpullido
• Have blurred vision - Visión borrosa
• Have indigestion - Tener indigestión
• Have memory loss - Pérdida de memoria
• Slurred speech - Habla fatigada
• Pass out - Desmayarse
• Shiver - Temblar
• Throw up - Vomitar

2. Verbs and Communication

• Reveal - Revelar
• Interpret - Interpretar
• Figure out - Averiguar
• Criticise - Criticado/a
• Reject - Rechazado
• Capture - Capturar
• Point at - Señalar a
• Get across - Atravesar
• Highlight - Destacar
• Illustrate - Ilustrar

3. Phrasal Verbs and Adverbs

• Open up - Talk about something with someone
• Move on - Stop talking about something
• Keep it to yourself

Business Terminology Definitions

Sales and Marketing Techniques

• 1. Telesales (Televentas): Selling or marketing goods and services by phone (Venta o comercialización de bienes y servicios por teléfono).
• 2. Telemarketing: Same as above.
• 3. Cold-Calling (Llamadas Comerciales): Phoning people who have not requested a call in order to try to sell them something (Llamadas por teléfono a personas que no han solicitado una llamada con el fin de intentar venderles algo).
• 4. Hard Sell (Difícil de Vender): Attempt to sell something by being very forceful (Intentar vender algo siendo muy contundente).
• 5. Inertia Selling (Inercia de Venta): When a company behaves as if you agreed to buy something because you did not actually refuse it (Cuando una empresa

Parallel Structure

Parallel Structure

On his day off, he did this, this, and that. On his day off, he did this, this, and that.

I love reading stories, watching the moon, and spending time with my friends.

I love reading stories, watching the moon, and spending time with my friends.

Mary likes reading, playing cards, and watching movies.

Mary likes reading, playing cards, and watching movies.

Perfect Modals

Perfect Modals

They must have practiced (deben haber practicado) a lot because they played beautifully.

My grandfather may have used (podría haber usado) this camera when he was young, but I am not sure.

Could have—podría haber

Can't have—no puede haber

Should have—deberías haber

Mixed Conditionals

Mixed Conditionals

If I were you, I would get... Continue reading "English Grammar: Parallel Structure, Modals, Conditionals & More" »

Used To

• Affirmative: Subject + used to + verb
• Negative: Subject + didn't use to + verb
• Interrogative: Did + subject + use to + verb?

Past Simple

• Affirmative: Subject + verb in past (e.g., yesterday)
• Negative: Subject + didn't + verb
• Interrogative: Did + subject + verb?

Past Perfect

• Affirmative: Subject + had + past participle
• Negative: Subject + hadn't + past participle
• Interrogative: Had + subject + past participle?
• Time markers: Before, After

Present Perfect

• Affirmative: Subject + have/has + past participle
• Negative: Subject + hasn't/haven't + past participle
• Interrogative: Has/have + subject + past participle?
• Usage:
  • Ever: Questions only.
  • Never: Negative sentences only.
  • Just: Affirmative (between have/has and participle).
  • Still: Negative (before have/has).
  • Already:

Essential English Modal Verbs and Usage

Expressing Obligation and Necessity

• HAVE TO: Obligation imposed by a rule or external factor. (Tener que hacer por obligación – Norma)
  • Example: Tienes que llevar uniforme al colegio.
• MUST: Strong personal obligation or necessity (internal feeling). (Tener que hacer sin obligación – Obligación personal)
  • Example: Le tengo que comprar un regalo a mi madre porque es su cumpleaños.
• NEED TO: Necessity. (Necesidad)
• MUST and HAVE TO: Can be used to give very strong advice.

Lack of Obligation and Prohibition

• DON'T HAVE TO: Lack of necessity or obligation. (No tienes por qué hacerlo)
• DON'T NEED TO / NEEDN'T: Lack of necessity. (No tienes necesidad de hacerlo)
• MUSTN'T (CAN'T): Absolute prohibition. (Prohibición absoluta)

Antonio and Bassanio's Financial Dealings

• Why didn't Antonio have any money? (¿Por qué Antonio no tiene dinero?)
  Antonio did not have any money because he has all his wealth at sea.
• How much money did Shylock lend Bassanio? (¿Cuánto dinero le presta Shylock a Bassanio?)
  Shylock lent him three thousand ducats.
• What did Bassanio want the money for? (¿Para qué quiere Bassanio el dinero?)
  He wanted the money to go in search of his beloved.

Lorenzo and Jessica's Flight

• Who was Lorenzo? (¿Quién era Lorenzo?)
  He was a friend of Antonio and Bassanio, in love with Jessica.
• What happened with Jessica? (¿Qué pasó con Jessica?)
  Jessica leaves her father's house to go with a Christian (Lorenzo).
• How much money did Jessica take from her father, Shylock? (

Common Phrases with "In"

• In principle: en principio
• In fact: de hecho
• In debt: en deuda
• In charge: a cargo
• In the habit of: habituado
• In moderation: con moderación
• In case of: en caso de
• In particular: en particular
• In detail: minuciosamente
• In common: en común
• In public: en público
• In return: a cambio de
• In brief: en resumen
• In comfort: en la comodidad
• In no time: en un instante
• In existence: en existencia
• In name only: solo de palabra
• In advance: por adelantado, con antelación
• In secret: en secreto
• In vain: en vano
• In disguise: de incógnito

Common Phrases with "For"

• For a change: para variar
• For once: por una vez
• For nothing: sin motivo / gratis
• For hire: en alquiler
• For life: de por vida
• For the sake of: por el bien de

Common Phrases with "At"

• At a glance: en un