Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and exercises for Philosophy and ethics for Secondary education

St. Thomas Aquinas: Life and Philosophical Origins

St. Thomas Aquinas was born in 1224 in Roccasecca, near Aquino. In 1234, he was sent to study at the University of Naples and was ordained in 1250. In 1256, he was appointed master, and in 1257, he took his position.

Aquinian Sources of Philosophy

It can be said that his philosophy arises from the main currents of thought which crossed the ancient world, including Platonic and Hebrew philosophy. The basic framework of his philosophy is Aristotelian in origin.

The Philosophy of Being

To St. Thomas, the basic feature of being is that it exists but can be otherwise; it exists but could not exist, or does not exist but could exist. Secondly, experience shows that things change. Human intelligence discovers...

Historical Context

The new generation disclaims any conception of a metaphysical universe. The religious, scientific, and technical development of the old shell moves into society, giving rise to new epochs. It is a century of science and technology; however, the hegemony of scientism leads to a divisive, unspiritual, mechanistic, and universal set of values.

1.1 Culture

This culture influenced the crisis that society lives. Faced with a certainty crisis, Europeans look for something to believe in:

• a) Europe disseminates its great liberal democratic system.
• b) In the arts, there is a reaction against realism.
• c) In thought, there is a new movement: Vitalism, which tries to put the accent on the way and on values.

1.2 Philosophical Currents

• Positivism:

Defining Rights, Duties, and Human Rights

Rights are the guarantees and freedoms that people possess. They can be secured by law and aim to provide protection and security to all citizens.

Duties are the rules, laws, or regulations that govern our coexistence in society.

Human rights are the fundamental conditions inherent to all human beings simply for being human. They belong to everyone and can refer to an individual or a group. Individual rights (like freedom) are fundamental requirements of a person, while social rights (like health and education) revolve around equality and solidarity.

The Generations of Human Rights

Human rights are often categorized into generations:

• First Generation: Civil and political rights.
• Second Generation: Social,

1. The Moral Act

Moral acts are actions performed by individuals consciously or unconsciously, willingly or involuntarily. For an act to be considered moral, it must be performed knowingly and voluntarily; without this, the person is not free to choose between different forms of action. These human actions carry social consequences that can be measured positively or negatively by others.

2. Moral Judgments

A judgment is any proposition or sentence in which something is affirmed or denied about a subject. These are classified as:

• Fact Judgments: Describe a state of affairs without expressing personal opinion.
• Value Judgments: State or deny the value of something specific based on reference standards considered valid by the person making the judgment.

THEORY OF KNOWLEDGE
Johan Hessen
The Essence of Philosophy
Philosophy is an attempt of the human spirit to reach a conception of the universe through self-reflection on their roles theoretical and practical value.
The position of the Theory of Knowledge in the Philosophical System
A philosophy understood as a reflection on the theoretical behavior we would call science. The philosophy is, then, theory of scientific knowledge or theory of science.
As a reflection on the practical behavior (values), making sense of value theory.
Third, philosophy is a theory of the conception of the universe.
The conception of the universe is divided into:
• Metaphysics (of nature and metaphysics of the spirit).
• Theory of the Universe (God, freedom...

Philosophical Concepts and Ethical Theories

Several philosophical viewpoints address life, knowledge, and morality. Some of these ideas lead people to live in poverty and worry more about money than is necessary.

Cynicism and Naturalism

• Naturalism: Life is viewed cynically, often using the animal model as a standard for how one should look or behave.
• Defense of Autonomy: A focus on independence, suggesting that one should be minimally dependent on others.
• Agnosticism: An agnostic is someone who states that it is impossible to know whether God exists or not.
• Anti-Intellectualism: Unlike Socrates and Aristotle, the Cynics believed that knowledge and wisdom gained through study do not lead to happiness; one must live life actively.

Stoics and Epicureans

Stoicism

Stoicism...

13th Century: Rural Progress and Commercial Revolution

Two technical elements significantly contributed to rural progress in the 13th century. First, the development of water and wind mills freed up a workforce that could be utilized in the fields. Another key element was the widespread adoption of the plow. This led to an increase in plowed land and a surge in agricultural production. The surplus agricultural output necessitated trade, which in turn led to the emergence of covered markets and permanent shops.

A commercial revolution unfolded, fueled by credit and various highly relevant financial instruments. The merchant acquired significant importance, driving the expansion of trade routes. Rural progress and the commercial revolution fostered...

Understanding Freedom: Internal & External Aspects

Freedom is the ability to choose, even when facing risks. It is the absence of external compulsion, allowing individuals to decide their own path (unlike slaves or the poor).

Inner freedom means no internal constraints limit our ability to choose (e.g., ignorance, fear).

External freedom encompasses social, political, and economic aspects, rejecting tyranny.

Inner freedom is cultivated by developing strength and autonomy through education.

Freedom is obtained through effort, a process of liberation from many internal and external constraints. It is a project, an idea we intend to realize.

Defining Personality: Temperament and Character

We not only choose our actions, but also shape our personality....

The Summa Theologica and Natural Law

The Summa Theologica analyzes natural law, concluding that this law is generally applicable to all people but may vary in particular applications.

Eternal Law and its Manifestations

The eternal law of God is manifest in all beings. In the physical realm, it is seen through natural law. In human affairs, it is understood through reason. All beings are governed by this law, manifesting in living things through the drive for self-preservation, reproduction, and education. For humans, it also includes the search for truth and living in accordance with it.

Natural Law, Reason, and Virtue

Although natural law is a human principle, it is imprinted on the soul, allowing individuals to assimilate these habits habitually....

Essential English Vocabulary and Definitions

• A nasty nature: Having an unpleasant manner.
• Admit: To say something is true.
• Aerial: An antenna.
• Avoid: To prevent something from happening.
• Broadcast: To emit or transmit a signal.
• Campaign: A fight for or against something.
• Captivity: The state of not being free.
• Channel: A television or radio station.
• Closer: Nearer (Antonym: further).
• Conservationist: A person who advocates for the protection of nature.
• Contribution: Giving or supplying something alongside others.
• Courageous: Brave (Antonym: faint-hearted).
• DVD player: A device for playing digital video discs.
• Food chain: The series of organisms each dependent on the next as a food source.
• Global warming: The long-term heating of Earth's climate system.
• Grab: