Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and exercises for Philosophy and ethics for Secondary education

Parliamentary Representation and Mandates

After their appointment, citizens received delegated authority to act in parliament, becoming mouthpieces for the views of cities on items proposed in the notice. It was usually stated that attorneys and trustees lacked autonomy and were limited to conveying what the city had agreed. This power of attorney represented an imperative mandate. If new issues arose, the attorney would seek new powers, maintaining a close relationship with the city they represented, which was secured in Catalonia by constituting an ad hoc committee. The nature of these powers, and the consequent lack of initiative of the prosecutors, would have made their appointment by lot more understandable.

According to José Sarrión,...

Factors Shaping Medieval Legal Thought

The belief in the power of reason and the development of legal rights were influenced by several key factors:

• Philosophical factors contributing to the belief in the power of reason.
• Factors related to the system of legal sources (e.g., the role of lawyers).
• Institutional factors conducive to the pursuit and development of the "legal right."

Philosophical Factors

Legal Augustinianism and Voluntarism

During the High Middle Ages, until the emergence of Scholasticism, the theological and philosophical synthesis of St. Augustine was widely accepted. This resulted in legal Augustinianism, characterized by voluntarism.

For the Bishop of Hippo, the only source of law is the will of God, revealed partly by the Scriptures...

Plato's Educational Curriculum

The curriculum is based on mathematics and the liberation of the individual mind, allowing a focus on the universal. This enables the mind to think abstractly, a level reached by those of the gold class. Plato believed that men contribute to society in various ways by nature. He argued that true education should be instilled only in those who can benefit from it, and this must primarily be the responsibility of the state. The state has a duty to select the most intellectually capable individuals, as only some have the ability to see the intelligible world, as illustrated in the Myth of the Cave.

The process of education serves the state as a Republic—an idealistic version of social organization. The purpose of...

Types of Knowledge: Vulgar, Scientific, and Philosophical

Vulgar Knowledge (Common Sense)

Vulgar knowledge teaches us how things are presented to us. This knowledge of reality is uncritical and full of prejudice; it is not discussed. It accepts things as they are presented.

Scientific Knowledge

Scientific knowledge is a deeper understanding. It is deep and critical, always looking for the underlying causes of phenomena.

Philosophical Knowledge

Philosophical knowledge brings us closer to the ultimate causes of reality.

Characteristics of Philosophical Knowledge

Philosophical knowledge is defined by the following characteristics:

• Reflective knowledge
• Open knowledge
• Rational knowledge
• Global knowledge (namely, radical)
• Practical knowledge
• Systematic knowledge
• Critical

Anthropology: Integrative Knowledge of Humanity

Anthropology pursues an integrative knowledge from data supplied by other sciences.

Dimensions of Anthropology

Biological or Physical Anthropology

Examines the diversity of the human body in the past and present. This includes the evolution of human anatomy, differences and relationships between peoples, and their adaptations to the current environment. We study the theory of human evolution from our ancestors.

Social, Ethnological, or Cultural Anthropology

Studies human behavior, cultural activities and products, and structures of social relations in human groups. Archaeology focuses on the study of ancient cultures.

Philosophical Anthropology

Exploits the knowledge provided by anthropology to address...

Ethical Definitions of the State

The State is characterized by its aim to comply with specific values. In the classical tradition, the State is directed and justified by the idea of the Common Good. Below are two definitions from different authors that reflect an eschatological vision of the State:

• Hauriou: The State is the "scheme adopted by a nation with legal and political centralization, achieved through the action of political power and the idea of res publica as a set of means organized for the common good."
• Lucas Verdú: A "territorial society legally organized, with sovereign power, which pursues the general welfare."

Sociological Definitions

The fundamental reference here is not the end goal, but the phenomenon of power itself. The substance...

The Life and Influence of John Locke

John Locke (1632-1704) was born in Wrington, near Bristol, and educated at Oxford. He earned his medical degree in 1674. He was a diplomat and lived in France and Holland. Very interested in modern philosophy and science, he dealt intensely with political, social, educational, religious, and economic issues. He greatly influenced the formation of the modern liberal ideology.

The Second Treatise of Civil Government

The Second Treatise of Civil Government is a great work of political theory. Locke's political theory is, above all, a foundation of liberalism and an opposition to the theory of the divine right of kings. According to Locke, men are equal and free in their natural state. By common consent, they form...

Emotional and Psychological Argumentation

Emotional and psychological arguments leverage human feelings, social norms, and cognitive biases to influence an audience. Below are the primary methods used to evoke sympathy, rejection, or agreement.

1. Affective Argument

Feelings are directed at the recipient's doubts, desires, or fears to shift their perspective toward sympathy or rejection.

• Example: Organizing a fundraising campaign for a disease by arguing that no one is immune to suffering.

2. Argument for the Concrete

This method utilizes examples familiar to the listener, ensuring they feel directly affected by the subject matter.

3. Confidence of the Issuer

The speaker establishes a relationship with the receiver, using familiarity and emotional...

Branches of Philosophy: Metaphysics, Gnoseology, Logic, Ethics, and Aesthetics.
What is Science? Science is the body of knowledge obtained through observation and reasoning, systematically structured and deduced from general principles and laws.
Three Philosophical Currents:
Epistemology: This branch of philosophy studies the nature, source, and scope of knowledge.
Anthropology: The social science that studies human beings in a holistic way.
Epistemology: A branch of philosophy whose object of study is scientific knowledge.
What is Empiricism? Empiricism is a theory of cognition that emphasizes the role of experience, linked to sensory perception in the formation of concepts. Knowledge finds its validity in relation to experience.
Difference Between

The Social Contract

The social contract is a term used in philosophy, sociology, and political science. It refers to a real or hypothetical agreement made within a group by its members, establishing the rights and duties between the state and its citizens.

Classification of Artistic Genres

• Urbanism
• Architecture
• Visual arts
• Non-figurative arts
• Decorative arts

Natural vs. Social Sciences

Natural sciences study everything related to nature and living things. Social sciences study human life forms, such as psychology, history, or geography.

Fine Arts vs. Applied Arts

Fine art is defined as work created to motivate an aesthetic response, while applied arts refer to objects designed for daily use.

Defining the Canon

The canon refers to the set of rules governing...