Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and exercises for History for University

Thomas Hobbes: Life and Intellectual Journey

Thomas Hobbes was not an aristocrat. His father was an Anglican priest, which explains why he could have children. This background placed him within the bourgeoisie. Priests, much like modern civil servants, lawyers, or doctors, earned their living through merit, such as the ability to read and interpret texts.

He studied the standard curriculum at Oxford: law, arithmetic, and grammar. However, he always maintained a keen interest in medicine. Hobbes relied on the aristocratic Cavendish family, who financed his studies. This was a common practice among the aristocracy – supporting clever bourgeois individuals in a rapidly changing world. The Cavendish family facilitated Hobbes's access to power,...

The Master of Renaissance Architecture

Andrea Palladio is considered one of the most influential architects of all time, especially in the realm of Renaissance architecture. He incorporated Vitruvian ideologies in his work and was heavily influenced by Greek and Roman architecture. His influence spread through his unique buildings and published writings. By combining traditional architectural styles with his own innovations, he created a distinct style that is conveyed through both his writings and buildings and is still referenced in modern architecture.

The Four Books of Architecture

Palladio's book, I quattro libri dell'architettura (The Four Books of Architecture), publicized his system of building to architects across Europe. He emphasized...

Anglo Saxon Conquest - AS tribes came from Northern Germany. The first invaders were the Jutes who arrived in Kent in 449. Shortly after, bands of Saxons established themselves in the South. The Angles occupied East Anglia and Northumbria. Between their arrival and the 7th century, they occupied the whole of England, pushing the Celtic tribes to the margins. Therefore, the tribes were pushed to the borders. This caused the creation of seven kingdoms: The AS Heptarchy (Northumbria, Mercia, Wessex, East Anglia, Essex, Kent, Sussex). It marked the beginning of Britain as a country and the English language. Each kingdom established its own rule and there was constant power struggle, leading to the downfall of some kingdoms. Between 450-1066 (Norman...

A Nation of Immigrants

Native Americans

The first people to arrive in America came from Asia across the Bering Strait during a period of lower sea levels.

Reservations

Land set aside for Native Americans has historically faced challenges such as poverty and unemployment. Significant Native American populations reside in California, Oklahoma, and New Mexico.

British Influence

The American Revolution (1776) resulted in a blend of British and American cultures. Immigrants from the UK and Ireland played a significant role in shaping the early United States.

African Americans

Between 1620 and 1820, Africans were brought to America to work as slaves. In the South, they labored on plantations cultivating crops like cotton and tobacco. In the North, they worked...

Ancient Conflicts and Historical Thought

The Peloponnesian War: A Total Conflict

The Peloponnesian War (431–404 BC), fought between Athens and Sparta, was a pivotal conflict in ancient Greek history. Its vast scale, severe destruction, and far-reaching sociopolitical impact make it one of the earliest known examples of what would later be called "total war." The eventual defeat of Athens, brought about in part by Persia's crucial support for Sparta, ushered in a period of Spartan dominance. Historian Arnold Toynbee described Sparta as an "arrested civilization," referring to its inflexible militaristic society and resistance to cultural progress.

Although the term "Total War" was coined by Erich Ludendorff in 1935 in the aftermath of World War...

Madrid's Urban Evolution: Walls and Planning

Initial Urban Planning and Context

José López Sallaberry and Francisco Andrés Octavio created the initial layout of the Gran Vía in 1910, which included the relocation of the Cibeles Fountain.

Olgyay's diagram shows the type of materials and construction systems suitable for achieving thermal comfort, taking into account the external climatic conditions.

The Foundations of Mayrit (Arab Madrid)

The Mayrit of the Arabs

• Origin: Madrid (Mayrit) was originally an Arab settlement, established around 850 by order of the Umayyad emir Muhammad I.
• Fortifications: The initial defensive structure included a fortress and a military citadel. The Arab wall, remnants of which can be seen near the Almudena Cathedral,

The Rise of the Mongols

In the mid-twelfth century, the Mongols were just one of many peoples in the eastern grasslands, neither particularly numerous nor especially advanced. Then, Mongolians began to expand because the decline of annual average temperature caused a survival crisis. With the shrinking of pastures, Mongolians and other nomads had to look beyond the grasslands to obtain more food from the agricultural world.

Factors Behind Mongolia's Expansion

The second reason for Mongolia's sudden rise is the emergence of Genghis Khan. Genghis Khan and his successors were able to conquer Asia and Europe not only because of the Mongolian army's strong fighting ability and advanced weapons but also due to their army's fighting methods and skills....

The Historical Impact of Qin Unification

The reunification of Qin ended the long-standing situation in which the states were ruled by various princes. This transition was conducive to the stability of the people's lives and the development of social production, aligning with the common aspirations of the people of all ethnic groups at that time. The Qin Dynasty was the first unified multi-ethnic feudal state in Chinese history, and Qin Shihuang became the first emperor in Chinese history.

Standardization and Centralization of Power

After the reunification of the six countries, the standardization of weights and measures, Chinese characters, and currency had an epoch-making influence on China's historical development. During the reign of Emperor...

Marxism (19th Century)

Marxism posits that the world is divided into two primary structures: infrastructure and superstructure. The infrastructure consists of the economy and relations of production, while the superstructure encompasses ideology, culture, morality, and religion. For Marx, the infrastructure determines the superstructure. He sought to transform utopian socialism into scientific socialism.

Key tenets of Marxist theory include:

• Historical Materialism: History is economic and driven by class struggle.
• Coherence: Changes in ideas must align with the infrastructure.
• Class Antagonism: Capitalist societies are defined by the conflict between the proletariat and the bourgeoisie.
• Revolution: When antagonism becomes unbearable, the proletariat

Mexico & Argentina

Mexico's Path to Independence

The hero of the independence, liberal general Guadalupe Victoria, was elected first president under the new constitution in 1833. President Valentín Gómez Farías pushed to Congress a series of radical liberal reforms. General Antonio López de Santa Anna occupied the capital and sent Gómez into exile. He repealed the reform laws and suspended the constitution. The new conservative constitution of 1836 reduced the states to be completely dominated by the central government. This led to the loss of Texas in 1836. The United States annexed Texas in 1845, and the Mexican-American War broke out. By the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, Mexico gave up half of the country, ceding Texas, California,...