Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and exercises for History for University

Key Milestones in European Integration

Failure to follow the law can impose economic sanctions.

The European Council: Role and Function

The European Council comprises the heads of government or heads of state of each member country. It has no physical headquarters but typically meets two or three times a year.

Its primary function is to discuss and agree upon the main guidelines and strategic lines of the Union. Decisions made here influence subsequent steps in cooperation and policy implementation.

Foundational Treaties and Communities (1951–1957)

• 1951: The Treaty of Paris was signed, institutionalizing the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC).
• 1957: Three communities were established:
  • The European Economic Community (EEC), also known as the

The Holy See and 20th Century Totalitarianism

In the 20th century, a striking fact was the proliferation of pacts signed by the Holy See (e.g., with Lithuania, Portugal, Russia, Czechoslovakia). Concordats, therefore, became a crucial tool and a counterpoint to the liberal policy of religious hostility. Following World War II, new challenges and sanctions emerged, further increasing the Holy See's international prestige.

Defining Totalitarianism in the 20th Century

The 20th century also witnessed the emergence in Europe of a series of totalitarian movements. These ideologies stood in stark opposition to individualism and liberalism, which championed the exaltation of the individual. Totalitarianism, by contrast, asserts that the community, the...

Phases of the Cold War

The Cold War went through four main stages: a period of maximum tension between 1947 and 1953, a phase called "peaceful coexistence" between 1953 and 1977, a resurgence of tension until 1985, and a final period until the disintegration of the USSR.

The Period of Maximum Tension (1947-1953)

During this period, the two blocs and superpowers tried to expand their respective areas of influence. There was a lot of friction, and relations were so strained that a direct confrontation seemed imminent. Key events included:

• The Berlin Crisis: In 1948, the United States, Britain, and France joined their governments and created the Federal Republic of Germany (FRG). The Soviet Union did not accept this and blockaded West Berlin, which

Minoan and Egyptian Influences

1. Modern gymnastics history originates in Minoan culture.
2. Lack of data on Mesoamerican ball games before 800 BC is due to archaeological remains not found until then.
3. Zanes were fines paid by athletes.
4. The term LUDI originates from Roman culture.
5. Athletic games evolution in Cretan culture, compared to Egyptian, is related to the Cretan lifestyle and palace architecture.

Greek Athletics and the Olympics

6. A triastes was an athlete who won three times.
7. Greek civilization is considered the origin of fair play.
8. Rope activity with colored stones was for decompression.
9. The year 884 BC is linked to the mythological start of the Olympic Games.
10. Races in Olympia during the classical era were stadion, diaulos, dolichos.
11. The ancestors of

Animus and Desmond's Ancestral Memories

The Animus is capable of extracting DNA user memories from ancestral offspring, allowing the user to relive these memories as if they were their own. Desmond Miles was chosen for the project due to his genetic link to his ancestor, Altaïr Ibn-La'Ahad. Altaïr, whose name means 'The Flying' and surname 'Son of Nobody' in Arabic, was a member of the Hashashin during the Third Crusade in the Holy Land. The researchers, Dr. Warren Vidic and his assistant Lucy Stillman, showed particular interest in an event involving Altaïr.

Abstergo's Hidden Agenda

Gradually, the true intentions of Abstergo Industries are revealed. Desmond discovers, by reading emails on Abstergo's computers and conversing with Lucy, that...

Unit 7: Civil War and Reconstruction

• Causes: Sectional tension over slavery; Popular Sovereignty (local voting on slavery) led to "Bleeding Kansas."
• John Brown: Radical abolitionist; the 1859 Harpers Ferry raid signaled imminent war.
• Abraham Lincoln: Won the 1860 election on a "Free Soil" platform, triggering Southern secession.
• The War: Shifted from "preserving the Union" to "abolition" after the Emancipation Proclamation (1863).
• Turning Point: Gettysburg (1863); Lincoln’s Gettysburg Address defined the "new birth of freedom."
• Reconstruction Amendments: 13th (ends slavery), 14th (citizenship/equal protection), and 15th (Black male suffrage).
• Conflict: President Johnson (lenient) vs. Radical Republicans (strict/Military Reconstruction).

Unit 8: Jim

Cork, located on Ireland's south coast, is the second-largest city in the Republic of Ireland and the third-largest on the island of Ireland, following Dublin and Belfast. It is the largest city in the province of Munster, with a history dating back to the 6th century.

Origins of Cork

Cork began as a monastic settlement founded by St. Finbar in the 6th century. However, the ancestor of the modern city was established between 915 and 922 by Viking settlers who created a trading community. The Viking leader Ottir Iarla is particularly associated with raiding and conquests in Munster, and the Cogad Gáedel re Gallaib links this to the earliest Viking settlement of Cork. The Norse phase left a legacy of family names, such as Cotter and Coppinger,...

Primary Sources

• Definition: A firsthand account of an event, essential for constructing historical narratives.
• Example: 12 Years a Slave serves as critical evidence for historians documenting the narrative of slavery.

“Virgin Soil” Epidemics

• Definition: Diseases introduced to the Americas from Europe to which the indigenous population had no prior immunity.
• Timeline: Occurred prior to the French and Indian War.
• Impact: These diseases devastated Native American populations across the United States.

Edward Braddock

• Role: A British General tasked with capturing the French Fort Duquesne, a mission in which George Washington had previously failed.
• Significance: Fort Duquesne (modern-day Pittsburgh) was a strategic location for controlling river passages

Mary, Queen of Scots

Elizabeth I's first policy in Scotland was to oppose the French presence, as Mary was considered the heir to the English crown. Elizabeth sent a force to Scotland to aid the Protestant rebels. When Mary returned to Scotland, she married several nobles, the last one being very controversial. She was eventually forced to abdicate in favour of her son, James, and escaped to England.

James VI (1566–1625)

King of Scotland from 1567 and England (as James I) from 1603. He was the son of Mary, Queen of Scots, and her second husband. He succeeded to the Scottish throne upon the enforced abdication of his mother and assumed power in 1583.

• Established a strong centralized authority.
• Married Anne of Denmark in 1589.
• Alienated the Puritans

HENRY VIII (1491-1547)

England from 1509. 2nd Tudor monarch. Best known for his 6 marriages & 4 efforts to have the 1st, Catherine of Aragon, annulled & Anne Boleyn. England, Catholic country and the head of the Church, the Pope, would not allow divorce, Catholic marriage for life. Made Church officials swear that he was leader=arrange his own divorce. Process called the reformation and confirmed by the Act of Supremacy (1534) declared Henry Supreme Head of the Church of England. England had accepted the separation, Henry went one step further and the chief’s minister place was taken by Thomas Cromwell. He declared any monks who spoke against him traitors and had them executed. 1536-1540 Henry VIII ordered the closing down of all:...