Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and exercises for History for University

Spanish Conquest of Mexico

Early Contact with Moctezuma

Juan de Grijalva sailed from Santiago, Cuba, in April 1518, following the route established by Francisco Hernández de Córdoba. Córdoba had discovered the Yucatán Peninsula and returned with enough wealth to encourage another venture. Grijalva reached the limits of Moctezuma’s empire, obtaining gold from Aztec merchants and meeting Pinotl, an Aztec official. Pinotl delivered news of the Spaniards to Tenochtitlan. When Moctezuma heard the Spanish might soon arrive, he grew concerned, believing they might be associated with the return of the god Quetzalcoatl.

Cortés and the Quetzalcoatl Myth

The third Spanish expedition to Mexico was led by Hernán Cortés in 1519. He founded the town...

Cuba suffered from its dependency on the U.S. and the reduced demand for sugar. In 1959, it became the scene of the most successful social revolution in Latin America.

Foundations of Cuban Independence

Key Figures and Early Resistance

José Martí was the leader and founder of El Partido Revolucionario Cubano (The Cuban Revolutionary Party). Afro-Cubans constituted the majority of the soldiers, known as the "Mambises". Women played an important role because they provided food and information, which led to the demand for women's rights.

Spanish Repression and Growing Unrest

General Valeriano Weyler killed many insurgents, fueling the Cubans' hatred for the Spanish rulers. Americans had many businesses in Cuba and were worried about the war because...

Puerto Rico: Island Details and Rich Heritage

Key Facts About Puerto Rico

• Official Status: United States territory
• Location: Northeastern Caribbean archipelago
• Capital: San Juan
• Official Languages: Spanish (predominant) and English
• Population: Approximately 3.6 million people
• Administrative Divisions: 78 municipalities
• Major Cities: Ponce, Caguas, Mayagüez
• Geographic Position: The island is located between the Caribbean Sea and the North Atlantic Ocean, east of the Dominican Republic (about 1,000 miles (1,600 km) southeast of Miami, Florida).

Governance and Political Status

As a U.S. territory, Puerto Ricans have U.S. citizenship, share common currency, and defense with the United States. However, residents generally cannot vote in U.S. presidential...

Conquest and Colonization of America

The conquest and colonization of America was a relatively short process, facilitated by the very population that was willing. Factors included the possession of firearms and horses, and greater technological readiness.

The Aztec Empire was conquered first, subsequently the Antilles, Maya, and Inca, and from 1550, territories of North America were occupied.

Colonization

America was conveyed to the laws of Castile and treated on equal legal terms. Peninsular institutions were also created, as well as:

• The House of Trade in Seville, which controlled trade with America.
• The Council of the Indies.
• Viceroyalties: Territories ruled by a viceroy of New Spain and Mexico-Peru-Lima.

Trade

The sixteenth century experienced a...

Dynastic Union of Castile and Aragon

The marriage of Isabel I of Castile and Ferdinand II of Aragon laid the foundation for a dynastic union between the two Crowns, which became a jointly governed union. The different peninsular realms were completed when Ferdinand, after the death of Queen Isabel, conquered the Kingdom of Navarre, which was bound to the Crown of Castile.

Characteristics of the Dynastic Union

This was only a dynastic union, meaning it did not imply the political unification of the various kingdoms. These kingdoms retained their own laws, privileges, institutions, and customs, sharing only the figure of the king. This union stressed the primacy of Castile (which was a single kingdom, while Aragon was formed by three kingdoms with...

Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679) and Leviathan (1651)

Context

To understand the reasons behind Hobbes' actions and way of thinking, it is essential to first know the context in which he grew up. This context reveals the great instability that existed in England at the time, particularly the English Civil War (1642-1649).

Charles I and the Road to War

Charles I (1625-1649) became increasingly estranged from his people. He waged war against both France and Spain, faced conflicts with Parliament, and created significant religious divisions within the country.

Oliver Cromwell and the New Model Army

Oliver Cromwell emerged as a powerful figure, ruling as a dictator. He reformed the army based on merit, with the clear objective of creating an efficient fighting...

Council of Europe: A Champion of Democracy and Human Rights

The Council of Europe is a regional, multilateral organization established in 1949 by the Treaty of London. It is headquartered in Strasbourg, France, and has 47 member countries. It is important to note that the Council of Europe is not an integration process.

Objectives

The Council of Europe's primary objectives are to promote freedom and create a democratic and legal area based on the principles outlined in the European Convention on Human Rights.

The Convention, established in 1950, is the Council's main achievement. Any country wishing to become a member must ratify it, organize free elections, abolish the death penalty, and guarantee the rule of law. It is the first instrument to...

The Fall of the German Democratic Republic

The swift and unexpected downfall of the German Democratic Republic (GDR) was triggered by the decay of other communist regimes in Eastern Europe and the Soviet Union.

The Breach of the Berlin Wall

The Berlin Wall was, in effect, breached in the summer of 1989 when a reformist Hungarian government began allowing East Germans to escape to Austria. By the fall, thousands of East Germans had followed this route, while thousands of others immigrated to West Germany.

In an effort to halt the deterioration of its position, the SED Politburo deposed Honecker in mid-October and replaced him with another hard-line communist, Egon Krenz. Under Krenz, the Politburo sought to eliminate the embarrassment occasioned...

Historical Sociology or Comparative History

Historical sociologists are interested in how modernization takes place. It's not the level of modernization that matters, but how it is achieved. They focus on class structure because they believe that the result of modernization will depend on the class structure of the country and the relations between different social groups. Groups will be benefited in different ways, so they analyze which social groups were more affected and benefited by democracy.

Barrington Moore and the Social Origins of Dictatorship and Democracy

Barrington Moore was the founder of this school and wrote the influential book Social Origins of Dictatorship and Democracy: Lord and Peasant in the Making of the Modern World in 1966....

That-Clauses in English

Different Kinds and Functions of That-Clauses

Different kinds of that-clauses serve different functions in the English language.

Post-Predicate That-Clauses

That-clauses in the post-predicate position are the most common type. These clauses typically report human speech and thoughts.

Example: I think Stuart’s gone a bit mad.

Post-predicate that-clauses controlled by adjectives are less common than those controlled by verbs.

Subject Predicative That-Clauses

When a that-clause serves as a subject predicative to a copular verb, it usually has one of three functions:

1. Describing a problem: Example: The only problem may be that the compound is difficult to remove after use.
2. Presenting reasons, results, or conclusions: Example: Our