Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and exercises for History for University

Jamaica Letter (September 6, 1815)

Context: Articulating a vision to unite South America (from Chile to Mexico) while considering the realities of its Spanish colonial past. Bolivar was concerned about the lack of political unity and the potential for anarchy in a newly independent Latin America. He believed that the destiny of the region was in the hands of its leaders and that it had the potential to become a great nation based on freedom and glory.

Key Themes:

• Desire for a unified and independent South America.
• Concern about the potential for anarchy and the need for strong leadership.
• Vision of a republican system, rejecting monarchical rule.
• Recognition of the challenges in breaking free from Spanish influence.

War to the Death Decree (June 15,

Religious Conflict and the Rise of Tolerance

Both the Catholic and Huguenot sides insisted on old medieval ideas. For Catholics, a Protestant monarch was a heretic and a Catholic usurper of a throne. The theory and practice of regicide is rooted in the theory of John of Salisbury and Thomas Aquinas. But the most interesting reflections giving rise to the conflict are those of the authors of a moderate party and the conciliators, Les Politiques, among whom were La Boetie, Michel de l'Hopital, and Bodin, who understood that religious pluralism is a necessity if you want to restore social peace, thus inaugurating the path of religious tolerance.

Machiavelli and Anti-Machiavellianism

Niccolo Machiavelli developed his work in Renaissance Florence....

14th Century

Scottish Independence

• 1305: William Wallace killed
• 1314: Battle of Bannockburn - Scotland becomes independent from England under King Robert the Bruce I.

The Hundred Years War (1339-1453)

• The House of Valois
• The House of Plantagenet (or Anjou) - Edward III claims the throne of England and France.

The Black Death (c.1348)

The Black Death affected all of Europe, killing between 30% and 60% of the population. This had a significant impact on the social structure and was one of the worst pandemics in history. It also dealt a blow to the Roman Catholic Church, as their efforts to care for the sick led to infections and blame being directed towards Rome. This also led to the persecution of minorities (Jews, foreigners, beggars, lepers) who were...

Historical Periods of the Middle East

The history of the Middle East can be divided into different historical periods, but three of them are especially important to understand today's governance and conflicts: the Ottoman Empire, the colonial period after the First World War, and the contemporary Middle East. In each period, imperialism, nationalism, ideological projects, and the involvement of great powers influenced the region in different ways.

The Ottoman Empire and Indirect Rule

The first important period is the Ottoman Empire. During this time, the Middle East was ruled by a large empire that controlled many different peoples and religions. The Ottoman Empire used mainly indirect rule, allowing local elites to govern while remaining loyal...

The Progressive Biennium (1854–1856)

• The Progressive Liberals resorted to a military coup d'état to access power when the political system and the prestige of the monarchy weakened.
• New President of the Government: Espartero, with the help of the Unionist General O'Donnell.
• Confiscation and privatization of civil and communal assets (fostered by Minister of Economy, Madoz, in 1855).
• General Railway Law (1855).

The Final Years of Isabella II (1856–1868)

• Power was held alternately by the Moderates of Narváez and the Unionists of O'Donnell.

• Moderate Policies

  • Creation of an educational system (the Moyano Law), regulating primary education.
  • Colonialist foreign policy: campaigns in Morocco, Indochina, and Mexico.

• Growing Opposition

  • Growing opposition

Rome was located in the center of Europe and the Mediterranean Sea (good for expansion) and protected by mountains in the north. It was founded by twin brothers: Romulus and Remus in 753 BCE. It was a fusion between Etruscan and native Roman elements. The Roman Republic was a system of government ruled by elected representatives. The Roman Empire conquered the Mediterranean, after fighting three wars: Punic Wars. The decline and fall of the Roman Empire took place between 133-31 BCE. During the Age of Augustus (31-14 BCE) there were provincial reforms, uniform imperial policy was established, and the frontiers were stabilized. There were five good emperors who followed the Pax Romana. The crisis in the third century was caused by military anarchy,...

The Great Depression: An Overview

The Great Depression was a severe worldwide economic depression in the decade preceding World War II. The timing of the Great Depression varied across nations, but in most countries it started in 1930 after the passage of the Smoot-Hawley Tariff bill (June 17), and lasted until the late 1930s or early 1940s. It was the longest, most widespread, and deepest depression of the 20th century.

In the 21st century, the Great Depression is commonly used as an example of how far the world's economy can decline.

Origins and Timing

The depression originated in the U.S., after the fall in stock prices that began around September 4, 1929 and became worldwide news with the stock market crash of October 29, 1929 (known as Black...

1. Economic Policies

What are economic policies? Strategies or packages designed by governments regarding the economic driving of their country.

2. Administrative Policy Organization

Based on an administrative policy, an organization composed of various local authorities with some capacity for self-government, but dependent on the central government for main functions, is referred to as:

3. Mercantilism

"Colbert only seeks that the French are able to dispense with all other peoples (...) One of the main causes of the shortage of money in France, in the midst of such plenty of corn and wine, comes from the Dutchmen no longer seeking them, as they did in the past, because our conduct with regard to trade with them clearly shows that we do not want

Gamal Abdel Nasser and the Rise of Pan-Arabism

Gamal Abdel Nasser (1918–1970) was the first ruler of Egypt, following the advent of Islam, to passionately advocate for Arab unity. This Pan-Arabist Colonel led a nationalist organization that orchestrated the fall of King Farouk in 1952 and proclaimed the republic in 1953.

Nasser's Ascent and the Suez Crisis

Nasser's most significant act was the nationalization of the Suez Canal, intended to finance the construction of the Aswan Dam. When the IBRD (International Bank for Reconstruction and Development) refused funding, the USSR granted the loan, positioning Egypt as a major player in the Cold War.

During the 1956 Suez War, Israel occupied Gaza and the Sinai. French and British forces deployed in...

Germanic invasions: 'Historia Ecclesiastica Gentis Anglorum'

Official account of the Germanic invasions (449). Angles in Britain first drove the enemy, after they made a league with them and went against their allies. The Heptarchy: 7 Anglo-Saxon 'kingdoms' - Northumbria, Mercia, Wessex, East Anglia, Essex, Kent, Sussex. England as a politically unified nation in the 10th century.

Dialects of Old English:

River Humber, River Thames, South, South/South-West.

The Germanic occupation of Britain was cruel, and most Britons died. The culture of Britons was not assimilated by Germanic tribes. Atheling (royal family), Earl (major nobility), Thegn (Minor nobility), Freemen, and Serf. Conversion of Germanic invaders to Christianity: Christianity was brought...