Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and exercises for History for University

History of the European Union

Post-War Cooperation and Early Treaties

In December 1947, during the Cold War, initial steps toward European integration were taken. A series of partnerships culminated in the Congress of Europe in May 1948, which advocated for political and economic union, a consultative assembly, and a European court of human rights. In January 1949, the United Kingdom, France, and the Benelux countries formed a union, establishing the Council of Europe.

On October 23, 1957, the Western European Union was created in Paris by the Benelux countries, France, Italy, and West Germany. Its goal was to coordinate economic, cultural, and military policy.

Forms of Economic Integration

• Free Trade Area: Complete elimination of tariff and

Spain's Gradual International Reintegration

In foreign policy, these agreements did not imply that the U.S. aimed for a standardized procedure. Thus, Spain's entry into the UN was not coincidental; it was dictated by the U.S. interest in bringing countries into its orbit, in the face of the USSR. Spain remained outside the Western integration processes (future EU and NATO).

Withdrawal of UN Sanctions

In November 1950, UN Resolution 46 withdrew diplomatic sanctions against Spain, influenced by South American and Arab countries.

Spain Joins International Organizations

Spain began to join UN agencies:

• First, the International Meteorological Organization.
• Then, the FAO (April 1951), WHO, and ITU (International Telecommunication Union, May 1951).
• UNESCO

Roman Expansion and Mediterranean Dominance

As Rome expanded through Italy, it granted its citizen-soldiers land, allowed defeated Latin-speakers to become full citizens, and welcomed defeated soldiers into its army. By 272 B.C.E., Rome had conquered the Italian peninsula. Victory in the Second Punic War gave Rome control of the Western Mediterranean. Rome's defeat of the Macedonians and the Greeks in 133 B.C.E. brought it control of the Eastern Mediterranean.

Rome's Longevity, Transformation, and Decline

Rome's empire persisted for so long because of its rulers’ willingness to adopt new structures, such as the Principate and Diocletian's Tetrarchy. Emperor Constantine strengthened the empire but weakened the city of Rome by establishing a new...

Democracy in the Middle East and North Africa

The Role of Islam and Culture

Can democracy coexist with Islam in the MENA region? While some argue that Sharia law should be considered, the imposition of Islam on minorities raises concerns. A study by Jamal and Telsser found that both secular and Muslim individuals identify as democratic, suggesting that cultural factors alone may not hinder democracy.

Economic Development and Inequality

Applying Lipset's theory, which links economic prosperity with democratic sustainability, we see that some Arab countries are wealthy, even rivaling established democracies. However, per capita income doesn't reflect wealth distribution. The UN Human Development Index, which considers factors like urbanization and...

MA 4: Key Periods and Concepts

Revolution (1640-1653)

Beginning with the Long Parliament, this era saw the beheading of King Charles I. Religious problems became politically charged, leading to a separation and confrontation between Royalists and Republicans. Theaters closed as a form of repression, and poetics shifted towards a Plainstyle.

The Commonwealth (1649-1659)

This republic, also known as the Protectorate, ruled England, Ireland, and Scotland. Diverse political and religious groups, characterized by radicalism, emerged. Literature grappled with the question of social order. The Protestant idea of 'inner light' as God's grace became politically significant.

The Restoration (1660-1688)

The Stuart monarchy returned with Charles II and later...

A New Nation

Abraham Lincoln: A Legacy of Leadership

Early Life and Political Career

Abraham Lincoln (February 12, 1809 – April 15, 1865) served as the 16th president of the United States from March 1861 until his assassination in April 1865. He rose from humble beginnings on the Western frontier, largely self-educated, to become a country lawyer, Illinois state legislator, and a one-term member of the United States House of Representatives. Despite setbacks in his early political career, including two unsuccessful attempts at a seat in the United States Senate, Lincoln's determination and leadership qualities eventually propelled him to the highest office in the land.

Presidency and the American Civil War

Lincoln's presidency was defined by the American...

Germany's Division After World War II

In protest, the Soviets closed the entrances to Berlin, except by air, a means by which the U.S. supplied the population for eleven months. That operation swayed much of the population in favor of the Western model. On May 23, a Parliamentary Council endorsed the Bonn Basic Law, following the authorization of the Allies. Thus, the Federal Republic of Germany (FRG) was born. On October 7, a provisional People's House declared the birth of the German Democratic Republic (GDR). The RFA would be organized as a parliamentary democracy. The Basic Law combined the information marked by the victorious powers, the recent experience of the Weimar Republic and Nazism, and divided the territory into two parts.

The German

The Rise of Mesopotamian Civilization

On the banks of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, the main urban settlements that were to play a leading role in the three millennia of Mesopotamian history emerged. The periodic overflowing of their banks irrigated and enriched the surrounding land, allowing intensive agricultural exploitation. This favored the appearance of stable settlements and their development. Cities such as Uruk, Ur, Lagash, Assur, Mari, and Babylon, among many others, arose, governed independently from a temple-palace.

Mesopotamian Society and Governance

The temple-palace organized the economy and held the political and military monopoly, as it was where the production and surplus from their economic activities were stored. Society...