Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and exercises for History for University

It was the President of the USA Woodrow Wilson the most powerful advocate of the League, since his 14 points intended to serve as the basis for world peace. Point 14 says: “A general association of nations should be formed …to create mutual guarantees of the political independence and territorial integrity of States, large and small equally.”

Organs:

The Assembly (representatives of all Members of the League), The Council, The Secretariat, The Permanent Court of I Justice (the first attempt to create a global forum of justice) and The International Labor Organization

The League tried to establish a New global order: based on Multilateralism and Cooperation, members agreed to work together to maintain peace, to control national armaments...

Mastering French Macarons: A Step-by-Step Recipe

French macarons are delicate, meringue-based cookies known for their smooth shells, ruffled feet, and delicious fillings. While they can be challenging to make, following this comprehensive recipe will increase your chances of success.

Ingredients You'll Need

• Almond flour: 1 cup (100g), finely ground
• Powdered sugar: 1 cup (120g)
• Granulated sugar: 1/2 cup (100g)
• Egg whites: 3 large, aged (see tips below)
• Cream of tartar: 1/4 teaspoon
• Food coloring: Gel-based (optional)
• Filling of your choice: Buttercream, ganache, jam, etc.

Equipment

• Kitchen scale
• Sifter
• Stand mixer or hand mixer
• Piping bag
• Round piping tip (about 1/2 inch)
• Baking sheets
• Parchment paper or silicone mats

Step-by-Step Instructions

1. Prepare the Almond

The Ptolemaic Dynasty: Rulers of Ancient Egypt

The Ptolemaic Dynasty, established around 311 BCE, marked a significant period in Egyptian history, with Alexandria serving as its vibrant capital. This era saw the restoration of absolute power, ultimately leading to the end of Ancient Egypt's independent rule.

Ptolemy I Soter (306-285 BCE)

Ptolemy I Soter, son of Lagos (a satrap and provincial governor of Egypt during the time of Alexander the Great), established himself as king of all Egypt. He founded the city of Ptolemais, near Thebes, which had been destroyed by the Assyrians. His reign also saw the conquest of Syria and the Aegean islands.

Ptolemy II Philadelphus (285-246 BCE)

Ptolemy II Philadelphus reconquered Cyprus, Tyre, and Sidon. He signed...

The Rise of Free Trade in 19th Century Britain

Early Calls for Free Trade

By the end of the 18th century, artificial trade barriers like tariffs and prohibitions had lessened considerably, even disappearing altogether. However, a resurgence of protectionism in the early 19th century led to higher import tariffs in several countries. In 1820, a group of London merchants petitioned Parliament for free international trade, signaling a shift in public opinion.

The Corn Laws and the Tory Government

Concurrently, a group of younger politicians focused on modernizing government procedures rose within the Tory party. Among them was Robert Peel. The Corn Laws, tariffs on imported grain, were the centerpiece of the UK's protectionist system. Despite growing...

Primo de Rivera Dictatorship (1923-1930)
The main causes were: widespread social tensions, the instability of successive governments, fear of regionalism (especially Catalan political movements), the disastrous Rif War, and military ambitions. It had the support of the oligarchy, middle classes, and some sectors of republicanism. The dictatorship's ideology was based on nationalism, emphasis on the public sphere, the influence of fascism (particularly Mussolini's Italy), and a program of national regeneration (homeland, religion, and monarchy). It can be divided into two stages:

• Military Directory (1923-1925):

  A government formed by nine generals, dissolving the courts, banning political parties and unions, and dissolving the Catalan Commonwealth.

The Pilgrim Fathers (Mayflower)

Religious English group formed by the end of the 16th century that, being dissatisfied with the political-religious environment, decided to emigrate, first to Leiden and after to the New World. Left from Plymouth's port in the Mayflower ship on August 15th, 1620 and, traversing the Atlantic Ocean, pretended to get to Jamestown colony, but a storm prevented it and they arrived at Cape Cod. Shortly after, they founded Plymouth. They were gathered by the Puritan Calvinist Church and took refuge from religious persecution and political instability from Europe. (The name was from a biblical passage).

Declaration of Independence

Statement adopted by the 2nd Continental Congress meeting at the Pennsylvania State House...

The Marshall Plan

The Marshall Plan, formally known as the European Recovery Program, was announced by then-Secretary of State George Marshall in a speech at Harvard University on June 5, 1947.

European hardship and financial inability to buy American products necessitated this plan, which required prior coordination of European countries for its implementation. A conference was held in Paris in June-July 1947, and, after much hesitation, the USSR attended. However, Moscow declined the offer and soon forced its satellite countries to do the same, claiming that the plan was a tool of imperialism and American hegemony.

Despite a campaign by the Communist Party, sixteen countries accepted the aid and met at a conference in Paris in September 1947....

Origins

Division of the Middle East between European powers after the Ottoman Empire collapses (1918-1920).

The first country to fight for independence from the OE was Greece (with the help of Britain, France, and Russia who all had interest in Ottoman territory).

[Important for KSA] Hussein Bin Ali (Hashemite dynasty): Sharif of Mecca was asked by the Young Turks to get involved and help them (acknowledging the Jihad). But, he said that he would only do this if they united into one Arab state. Turks didn’t agree and left him. British, on the other side, offered him just what he wanted if he rebelled towards Turkey. He mobilized Arabs to revolt and put his son in charge along with Lawrence of Arabia. This was an important factor in the end of...

The Mayflower Compact: A Foundation for Self-Governance

The Mayflower Compact, drafted in 1620, stands as the first governing document of Plymouth Colony. It was created by the male passengers of the Mayflower, a group composed of religious Separatists seeking freedom from persecution and individuals seeking economic opportunity. Facing unforeseen circumstances that landed them outside their intended Virginia territory, the Pilgrims established this compact to ensure order and survival.

Key Features of the Mayflower Compact:

• Majoritarian Model: The compact established a system of self-governance based on majority rule, although it excluded women and children from voting.
• Social Contract: The settlers agreed to abide by the compact's rules and regulations