Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and exercises for History for Secondary education

Legislative Measures of the Constituent Assembly

• Removal of privileges
• Separation of powers, property rights, and Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen.
• Nationalization of Church property.
• Civil Constitution of the Clergy.
• Establishment of economic liberalism and suppression of guilds.
• Constitution of 1791, which established that sovereignty resided in the nation.

The French Republic and War (1792-1795)

The new assembly, now called the National Convention, abolished the monarchy and proclaimed the Republic in 1792. In 1793, the king was executed on charges of treason. That same year, it adopted a democratic constitution. It marked the beginning of the triumph of the Jacobins (radical revolutionaries), supported by the sans-culottes.

The...

The Crisis of the Biennial Progressive

In the 1820s, the Luisma was the first expression of rebellion against the introduction of new machines, which were blamed for job losses and declining wages. In Alçay, workers raided and burned city looms; the most significant incident was the burning of the Bonaplata factory in Barcelona, the first steam-powered facility to operate in Spain.

However, workers soon understood that the source of their problems was not the machinery itself, but the working conditions imposed by owners. Consequently, the focus of labor protests shifted toward labor relations, defending the right of association, and improving living conditions, marking the beginning of asociacionismo.

The Rise of Associative Movements

The associative...

Italy After WWI: Economic Crisis and Political Instability

Italy faced a severe post-war economic crisis. The standard of living for the working class had declined significantly. Labor organizations sought to recover lost purchasing power, leading to a widespread strike movement with highly infectious and revolutionary objectives, resulting in significant worker and peasant unrest.

In the countryside, especially in the center of the country, a land occupation movement targeting large landowners developed. All these movements were repressed due to the fear of 'Bolshevization' and the outbreak of a social revolution, a fear widespread among the bourgeoisie who demanded stricter solutions.

Political Turmoil and Nationalism

Politically, the constitutional...

Causes of World War I

• Territorial Conflicts: France claimed Alsace-Lorraine from Germany; Russia and Austria-Hungary were rivals for influence in the Balkans; and Italy demanded the territories of Istria and Trento.
• Nationalist Conflicts: Different nationalities within the great empires faced increasing tensions.
• Economic Rivalries: The rise of industrial Germany was considered a threat by the British and French economies. This rivalry stemmed from colonial expansion, a constant source of tension between the major European powers.
• Arms Race: An arms race developed during a period of armed peace, along with the formation of military alliances: the Triple Alliance and the Triple Entente.

The Outbreak and the Contending Countries

The trigger of the...

The France of Napoleon Bonaparte

Initially, Napoleon shared power, but in 1802, he was declared sole consul for life. A new constitution established a strong executive, limited suffrage to the wealthy, and nullified the Bill of Rights. He also joined the royalists in their schemes with measures like the return of emigrants and the restoration of Catholic worship through a Concordat. Napoleon gradually accumulated power until, in 1804, he was crowned emperor. He addressed the creation of new institutions and reforms to consolidate the principles of 1791. He developed a Civil Code, a Commercial Code, and a Criminal Code that sanctioned equality before the law, property rights, individual freedom, conscience, and work, as well as free access to...

French Revolution Terminology

Key Factions and Groups

• Girondins: Members of the National Convention group of deputies of the French Revolution (1792). They represented a more modern bourgeoisie, distinct from the Jacobins. They defended freedom and the right to property as inalienable rights.
• Jacobin Club: Led the radical political life in France. Based on radical ideas, they defended an alliance with the masses.
• Bordeaux: Members of the bourgeois convention group who defended freedom and the right to property as an inalienable right.
• Cordeliers: A radical political society created during the French Revolution. Its members favored and supported social measures.
• Sans-culottes: Paris militias who aspired to deepen reforms and proclaimed the Republic.

Key Terms of the Spanish War of Independence

• Francophiles: Spaniards who admired Enlightenment ideas and supported Joseph I, believing he would implement enlightened reforms in Spain.
• Pronunciamiento: A military uprising or coup aimed at seizing political power.
• Juntas (Boards): Representative bodies elected by the people. The most significant was the Central Board.
• Guerrillas: Spontaneous armed bands of fighters supported by the local population, organized to resist Napoleon's army.
• Liberal Triennium: A period triggered by Rafael del Riego's uprising, marking the return of liberalism during the reign of Fernando VII.

Events During the Reign of Fernando VII

The Manifesto of the Persians

A document presented to the King by a group of absolutists who...

The Armed Peace (1890-1914)

The period known as the Armed Peace (1890-1914) followed German unification. Germany, under the leadership of Otto von Bismarck, became a world power. Bismarck sought to isolate France by forming an alliance with Austria and Russia, aiming to maintain stability in the Balkans. However, Wilhelm II, a supporter of aggressive policies, dismissed Bismarck.

The Alliances

• Triple Entente: Russia, France, and the United Kingdom
• Triple Alliance: Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy

Colonial Tensions

Colonial issues were a persistent source of tension, particularly between the United Kingdom and Germany, as well as France and Italy. Conflicts also arose in Eastern Europe.

The Spark: Assassination in Sarajevo

On June 28, 1914, Archduke...

Reign of Elizabeth II of Spain (1833-1868)

The Regency (1833-1843)

Following the death of Fernando VII, his daughter Elizabeth II inherited the throne at just three years old. Her mother, Maria Cristina de Borbón, assumed the regency. The outbreak of the First Carlist War forced the Regent to rely on the Liberals to secure the throne for her daughter. The Liberals advocated for a constitutional monarchy but were divided:

• Moderate Liberals defended: shared sovereignty between the Cortes (Parliament) and the King, suffrage based on very restricted census qualifications, legal equality, a confessional Catholic state, centralism, and the monarch retaining significant powers.
• Progressive Liberals defended: national sovereignty residing in the nation,

Ferdinand VII's Reign and Spanish Turmoil

1. Ferdinand VII became heir to King Charles IV, forcing his abdication. Manuel Godoy, the prime minister, was dismissed. Ferdinand VII assumed the throne. Napoleon Bonaparte appointed his brother, Joseph Bonaparte, as King of Spain, with the support of Spanish liberals (Afrancesados).

A popular uprising occurred on May 2, 1808, marking the beginning of the Peninsular War, fought between French and English forces in Spain.

The French faced a guerrilla war waged by civilians taking up arms.

Spaniards fighting against the French were known as patriots.

The Peninsular War concluded in 1814 with the defeat of the French and the return of Ferdinand VII to Spain.

Liberals approved the Constitution of 1812 in Cadiz,...