Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and exercises for History for Secondary education

Consequences of the Roca-Runciman Pact

This agreement reaffirmed the commercial relationship with the United Kingdom and secured export quotas for Argentine beef. This pact had important repercussions in Congress.

In 1935, the Senate faced a scandal after Senator Lisandro de la Torre (Progressive Democrat) denounced corruption while defending small farmers against powerful ranchers and foreign meatpacking plants. De la Torre investigated and found that foreign companies evaded taxation by concealing accounts and profits. He implicated Finance Minister Pinedo and members of the Rural Society.

The scandal culminated in a Senate session where Senator Enzo Bordabehere, a friend of De la Torre, was assassinated in an attack intended for Lisandro de...

Fascism in Europe

Europe suffered a series of events that were experienced as catastrophic social upheavals and economic depressions. The nineteenth-century liberal system was accused of being the cause, and values of reason and progress had lost credibility. During the 20s and 30s, political and social movements became authoritarian, demanding the demise of the liberal regime, as well as the imposition of the state over the masses. The most representative examples of fascism were Mussolini's Italy and Hitler's Germany.

Common Traits of Fascism

They shared the bourgeois rejection, contempt of liberal politics, rejecting parliamentary democracy, the harsh repression of Marxism, a strong nationalism, xenophobia and racism, and the tendency to rely...

Argentina and the Radical Governments (1916-1930)

In Argentina, the first elections held under the Saenz Peña Law granted victory to the Radical Civic Union. This party remained in government between 1916 and 1930, with Hipólito Yrigoyen, Marcelo T. de Alvear, and again Yrigoyen serving as presidents. Yrigoyen was ultimately displaced by a military coup.

The Challenging Path to Democracy

Yrigoyen's ascent to the presidency occurred during a period of economic recession and a complex political landscape. Conservatives retained significant power in Parliament and provincial governments. The new Radical government exhibited considerable internal heterogeneity and lacked support from the press and big business.

Yrigoyen rarely spoke in public or...

Italian Fascism

Following World War I, Italy faced widespread dissatisfaction due to limited territorial gains and social frustration. Benito Mussolini founded the Fasci di Combattimento, which evolved into the Fascist Party in 1921.

The Rise to Power

• 1922: Mussolini organized the March on Rome.
• The government resigned, and the King appointed Mussolini as Prime Minister.
• Following the Matteotti case, the Fascists established a totalitarian dictatorship.

Fascist Policies

Mussolini, known as Il Duce, implemented several key initiatives:

• Aggressive foreign policy.
• Establishment of corporate trade unions.
• Promotion of agricultural and industrial autarky.
• Reconciliation with the Church through the Lateran Pacts.

German Nazism

Nazi ideology, created by Adolf...

Causes of World War I

The reasons for the outbreak:

• Territorial claims of different countries, such as Russia, and economic rivalries.
• Austria-Hungary tensions and competing ambitions, especially between Germany and the United Kingdom.
• Colonial interests and the formation of opposing alliances: the Triple Alliance and the Triple Entente.

Characteristics of the Conflict

Key characteristics:

• New weapons and defensive systems, which transformed combat.
• Women entering the workforce in large numbers to support the war effort.
• The economy became centered on the war; its main goal was the production of weapons.
• Propaganda played a major role in maintaining the morale of the population.

Phases of World War I

Phases of conflict:

• War of movement (1914): Germany carried

War of Succession

In 1700, King Charles II died without heirs. In his will, he named Philip of Anjou as his successor in exchange for Philip rejecting the French crown. When he did not comply, the major European powers supported Archduke Charles of Austria. Thus, the War of the Spanish Succession broke out. This was also a civil war, which pitted Castile (supporting Philip of Anjou) against the Crown of Aragon (supporting Archduke Charles). The solution to the conflict came after the death of the Emperor of Germany and his eldest son, which made Archduke Charles the new emperor. In the Peace of Utrecht and Rastatt, Philip V renounced his claim to the throne of France, and Spain lost its European possessions.

Political and Administrative Reforms

The...

The Medical Wars (490-479 BC)

The clash of the allied Greeks against the Persian Empire consecrated Athens as the most powerful polis, creating a maritime empire (thalassocracy).

The treasury of the Delian League was abundant, leading to Athens becoming the most prestigious and powerful polis, controlling these resources.

Athens, under the government of Pericles, implemented radical democracy.

Strategist: Chosen, competent to address the funding and administration of foreign policy (importance of the maritime empire of Athens).

Archons: Honorary position chosen by lot.

Areopagus: Strictly religious position.

Bule: Secretary of the advisory assembly drafts laws.

Assembly: Deals with all regular and special issues; any citizen can challenge a law and...

The Organization of Peace: Yalta and Potsdam

The Allies had learned from the mistakes of the Versailles Treaty. Therefore, from the beginning of the war, they discussed the mechanisms for achieving a lasting peace. Moreover, the war had made it clear that there were two hegemonic powers, the U.S. and the USSR, and the new world order should reflect that fact. The Allies met at various conferences throughout the war to discuss the strategy to follow and the conditions for peace. The most important took place in Yalta and Potsdam.

The Yalta Conference (February 1945)

At the Yalta Conference, Stalin, Roosevelt, and Churchill discussed the situation in Europe once it was liberated from the Nazis. The context was favorable to Stalin, as the Soviet...

The Reign of Queen Isabella II

The reign of Queen Isabella II was characterized by the alternation of moderate and progressive governments across three distinct periods:

• The Moderate Decade: General Narváez promulgated a new constitution in 1845 that extended the powers of the monarchy.
• The Progressive Biennium: Led by Espartero, this period saw a new disentailment carried out by Pascual Madoz. This affected municipal lands and worsened the situation of the peasants; from an economic standpoint, this was more significant than the Mendizábal disentailment.
• Alternation of Moderates and the Liberal Union: The Liberal Union party, led by Leopoldo O'Donnell, brought together the most advanced moderates and the less radical progressives.

Challenges

The French Revolution: Origins and Early Stages

In 1789, France faced a severe economic and social crisis. The impoverished and hungry populace, along with a marginalized bourgeoisie, found their economic and social conditions deteriorating, with no means of improvement. The King and the monarchy were also in a deep financial crisis.

The proposed solution was a forced tax reform, compelling the wealthy to pay taxes. However, the wealthy refused to pay and forced King Louis XVI of France to convene the Estates-General, an assembly composed of the nobility, clergy, and the common people (Third Estate). This assembly was called to decide on the proposed tax reform and tax payments.

Traditionally, each estate in the Estates-General counted as one...