Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and exercises for History for Secondary education

The Era of Al-Andalus

The Origins of Al-Andalus

In 711, an army of Berbers and Arabs crossed the strait separating Europe and Africa. The general of this army was named Tariq ibn Ziyad. Since then, the place where he landed has been called Gibraltar (from 'Jabal Tariq' or Mount Tariq).

Only one major battle, the Battle of Guadalete, was enough to defeat the Visigothic king, Roderic, and the peninsula offered little further resistance. Within three years, it became a dependent province under the Caliph of Damascus.

The history of Al-Andalus spanned eight centuries, concluding in 1492 when the Christian Reconquista captured Granada, the last Muslim kingdom in Spain. However, it wasn't until 1609 that the last Moriscos (Muslims who remained in Christian...

Unit 1: The Old Regime and the Enlightenment

The Old Regime

Old Regime was the name given by French revolutionaries to the era before the 1789 revolution. Later, historians used this term to describe the political, economic, and social characteristics of Europe between the 15th and 18th centuries.

Enlightened Despotism

In the second half of the 18th century, some kings tried to reconcile absolutism with the progressive ideas of the Enlightenment. Thus emerged Enlightened Despotism, a form of government outlined in the principle "all for the people, but without the people." In it, the monarch continued to concentrate all powers, but was considered the first servant of the state, carrying out certain reforms to achieve progress and happiness of his...

Simón Bolívar and the First Republic (1810-1812)

The Revolutionary Movement Begins

When the events occurred on April 19, 1810, Bolívar was at his ranch in San Mateo. A few days later, he returned to Caracas and actively incorporated himself into the revolutionary movement.

Diplomatic Mission to London (1810)

In July 1810, Bolívar traveled to London in the company of Luis López Méndez and Andrés Bello on a mission from the Supreme Junta to the English government. The commissioners held the position that the Supreme Junta remained faithful to Ferdinand VII, while retaining its autonomy from the Regency. The commissioners were also tasked with managing the purchase of weapons and securing the British government's recognition for the Junta of...

The Spanish-American War and the Crisis of 1898

By the late 19th century, Spain retained only the islands of Cuba, Puerto Rico, and the Philippines. The ongoing colonial conflicts severely shook the Spanish regime and ultimately led to the loss of its overseas empire.

The War in Cuba

The colonial problem in Cuba was one of the biggest concerns during Spain's Restoration era.

Background to the Cuban Uprising

The issues did not end with the agreement of 1878. A new uprising, known as the Guerra Chiquita (Little War), occurred, followed by two minor continuations. Key factors included the rise of Cuban nationalism and the increasing U.S. economic penetration into the island. The relationship between Spain and its colony was deteriorating, and while...

The German Reich (1871-1914)

In 1871, the German Empire was proclaimed in the Hall of Mirrors at the Palace of Versailles, establishing Germany as a new great power in Europe.

Economic Expansion and Political Organization (1869-1875)

By 1869, internal barriers between German economic regions were eliminated, creating a unified internal market through the abolition of fees and the standardization of weights and measures. In 1871, the framework for a unique Imperial Bank was established, and by 1875, it was fully operational. The state's railway nationalization policy significantly aided economic growth, particularly in heavy industry and transport, fueled by industrial and financial concentration.

The political system granted extensive powers to...

The Railroad and the Steamboat

In Britain and much of Europe, there was a significant improvement in traditional communication methods. In its inception, the railroad was used in mines to transport ore in wagons that moved on rails. Engineers invented a new system of iron rails and wheels with flanges that prevented derailment. The true revolution was the locomotive, which powered the train through a steam engine. The first passenger line joined the cities of Manchester and Liverpool.

Afterward, the steam engine was applied to ferries and steamboats constructed of iron, which replaced the first sailing ships. Steamers began to run, and U.S. ships could cross the Atlantic in 15 days.

Increased Trade

Foreign trade also increased considerably. The...

XVII Century

Caracteristic: Political, social and economic aspects. S disastrous a century (there was a crisis), because of the plague, the European war of 30 years who was d Catholics against Protestants. Highlights the Baroque (Velazquez, Rembrandt ...). Culturalment golden highlights and rev. Scientific

P. Interior: monarkia authoritarian (Austria, r.Hispanicos, est. German ...) and absolute. It occurs in France by King Louis XIV. In this monarkia, power is held by the monarch, the king is more important is above the law. Theorists M. Absolute: Leviathan Thomas Hobbes writes that the man did not harm himself or Bossuet. / / Political liberalism: It is for 1st time in England by John Locke, he said that society had the power (sovereignty)...

Stabilization of the Revolution: The Directory (1794-1799)

After Thermidor, the Convention imposed a moderate republican regime, dismantling the Jacobean structure with the drafting of the Constitution of 1795. This constitution attempted to maintain equilibrium between the powers:

• The executive power resided in a Directory of five members.
• Two legislative assemblies: the Council of Five Hundred and the Council of Elders.
• The judiciary acted as guarantor of the constitution.

Census suffrage was reintroduced, and political life began to be controlled by the wealthy. The Directory faced two major enemies: the Monarchists, who conspired against the revolutionary power, and radical revolutionaries.

The Consulate (1799): The Rise of Napoleon

The 1797 elections...

French Revolution

The most prominent group was the Girondins. The monarchy was abolished, and the Republic was proclaimed in 1792. Louis XVI was guillotined. Popular discontent before the war was exploited by radical Jacobins to access power. Their leader, Robespierre, proclaimed a more democratic constitution in 1793, which established universal male suffrage. He used terror and the guillotine against those who opposed the system. After Robespierre's demise via the guillotine, power shifted to members of the center, who crafted the Constitution of 1795.

The Consulate

Composition

Executive power was to be held by a directory of five members. Napoleon Bonaparte carried out several military campaigns in Italy and Egypt. He staged a coup in 1799 and...

The Carolingian Empire

From Frankish Kingdom to Imperial Power

The Franks, originating from the Rhine region, settled in Gaul after the fall of the Western Roman Empire. Clovis I united the Gallic peoples and the Franks, defeating the Visigoths at the Battle of Vouillé and entering Hispania.

Charles Martel's victory against the Muslims at the Battle of Poitiers halted the Islamic invasion into Europe. His son, Pepin the Short, founded the Carolingian dynasty.

The Reign of Charlemagne

The Carolingian Empire flourished from the 8th to the late 9th century, with Charlemagne, son of Pepin the Short, as its architect. Charlemagne's expansionist policies extended the empire across the Iberian Peninsula, Gaul (modern-day France, Germany, Belgium, Luxembourg,...