Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and exercises for History for Secondary education

The Directory (1795-1799)

Following the era of the Jacobins, a new constitution in 1795 established limited suffrage based on property ownership. The government was led by a five-member Directory, which held executive power, while legislative power was vested in two councils.

Radicals conspired against the government. The Conspiracy of the Equals, led by Babeuf, was a plot to overthrow the government and establish an egalitarian society.

Royalists also led revolts and counter-revolutionary activities with the aim of restoring the Bourbon dynasty.

In Europe, France won a series of victories. General Napoleon Bonaparte conquered most of Italy on behalf of the Directory between 1796 and 1799. However, Britain formed a Second Coalition that challenged...

How did the Industrialization of Europe affect the rest of the world?

The Industrial revolution was a time between 1700s and in 1800s when changes in agriculture, manufacturing, transportation… And consequently, it affected in cultural, political), economic (Economic Liberalism – theory of freedom of production and trade) and social (Industrial Capitalism – system where industrial production became the country’s most Profitable activity )aspects and conditions in Britain. This was the first Country in the world to have an industrial revolution and it was due to many Factors ( massive increase in population, improvements in agriculture, Transportation was better, ability of obtaining more easily raw materials…). This changes spread

The Napoleonic Empire

In 1804, Napoleon declared himself Emperor of France.

Domestic Policy

• He consolidated the changes made during the revolution.
• He established the Civil Code, a set of laws that applied equality to all citizens and introduced new concepts such as civil marriage, divorce, adoption, state-controlled education, and the protection of private property.

Foreign Policy

• Napoleon transformed France into an empire following his victories over Austria, Prussia, and Russia.
• Great Britain remained undefeated despite the Continental Blockade (Bloqueo Continental) he established. No country allied with or occupied by France was permitted to import British goods.
• He spread the revolutionary principles of liberty and equality across Europe.
• His rule

Post-WWI Mandates and the Rise of Zionism

At the end of the First World War, the Ottoman Empire was dismantled. The Arab territories that formed part of it came under French and British administrations or mandates. The Arabs aspired to create one great nation, and their project was supported by the French.

However, in the 1920s, Zionist nationalism, which demanded the creation of a Jewish state in the Middle East, encouraged the emigration of Jews from all over the world to Palestine, one of the territories left under the British mandate. This project was supported by Great Britain, as expressed in the Balfour Declaration.

The Balfour Declaration (1917)

The British Foreign Secretary, Lord Balfour, sent a note to Baron Rothschild expressing his...

Political and Territorial Changes

Following the war, global relations were dominated by the USA and the USSR. Tensions between these powers grew, leading to the Cold War. In Western Europe, parliamentary democracy and capitalism were restored, while Eastern Europe saw the rise of communist dictatorships under Soviet control.

Economic Consequences

By 1945, the communications network in Central Europe had disappeared. Petroleum was scarce, and industrial production had been significantly reduced.

Human Loss and the Holocaust

World War II resulted in the deaths of 60 million people and the massive displacement of approximately 40 million individuals seeking new homes in Europe. The most brutal aspect was the Holocaust, the systematic extermination...

1. The February Revolution: The Fall of Tsarism

1. The revolution began with a large demonstration in St. Petersburg followed by a general strike and riots in the barracks. The groups of demonstrators were composed of soldiers, workers, and peasants.

2. The Tsar abdicated, and a provisional government promised to call elections to make Russia a parliamentary democracy. The government was dominated by the bourgeois parties and didn't withdraw from World War I. It couldn't improve the living conditions of the people, whose discontent grew. The Soviets (groups of workers and soldiers) began to demand the dismissal of the government.

2. The October Revolution: The Bolsheviks Rise to Power

1. Lenin, leader of the Bolsheviks, returned to Russia from...

Key Events & Figures of the American Revolution

2.3-napoleons rule   Napoleon as cosul(1799-1804) MAIN OBJETIVES: he wanted to implement the more moderate ideologies that had inspired the french revolution through a goverment that represented the interests of the bourgeoisie.   HIS GOVERMENT: 1 the new constitution of 1800 not include separation of powers and opinions censured  2. state organised departments run by prefects under napoleons control. 3. Finance sector reformed(privileged people pay) 4.State schools created to spread values of revolution  5.Signed agreement with church: concordato  6.Civil/comertial code ->drawn up     ---napoleons conquest(04-15) 1.Stoped austrian invasion and began to conquer europe 1803  2.Defeted most of european monarchies(russia, austria,...

The Moderate Decade (1843-1854)

During the reign of Isabella II, Spain's moderate liberal party remained in government. The Moderate Government converted Spain into a conservative and centralist liberal state. In 1845, a new constitution was adopted. Suffrage was restricted, sovereignty shared between the courts and the crown. The state signed the concordat with the Holy See, agreeing to finance the church and stop privatization. In some periods, moderate liberals adopted measures to stop centralist taxes and create penal and national education systems. The political system weakened. The monarchy was politically active, favoring competition among the aristocracy, military, and clergy for the favor of the queen, which led to corruption. Moderates...

Adam Smith: book-the wealthofnations. Free market/ free economy/ 3 natural laws. 1.The law of self interest. "why work? For me" 2. Law of competition. More businesses=more competition= beter product 3.Law of suply and demand. Free trade=no regulation (no government).

working-class political movements: