Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and exercises for History for Secondary education

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Modern Art Movements

• Futurism: An artistic movement begun in Italy in 1909, which strongly rejected traditional forms and embraced the energy and dynamism of modern technology. Launched by Filippo Marinetti, it had effectively ended by 1918 but was widely influential, particularly in Russia on figures such as Malevich and Mayakovsky.
• Expressionism: A style of painting, music, or drama in which the artist or writer seeks to express the inner world of emotion rather than external reality.
• Avant-garde art: The people and ideas that are ahead of their time. Usually, it refers to a movement in the arts, like Dadaism, or in politics, like anarchism.
• Cubism: The Cubist art movement began in Paris around 1907. Led by Pablo Picasso

Decolonization: The End of Colonial Empires

Decolonization was a process that began in 1945, leading to the dismantlement of colonial empires and the independence of their colonies. It affected over half of the world's surface and 1.5 billion people.

Causes of Decolonization

• The First World War: Colonies became aware of their own importance, and the prestige of colonial powers was reduced.
• Nationalist Movements: After WWI, nationalist ideas fueled by liberalism or Marxism spread through the colonies. They defended the right of the people to govern themselves.
• Emergence of Charismatic Leaders: The elites of many colonized nations studied in European universities. Upon returning, they formed political parties and led independence movements (e.g.,

Bartolomeu Dias

Portuguese explorer who, in 1488, led the first expedition to sail around the southern tip of Africa from the Atlantic Ocean and sight the Indian Ocean.

Prince Henry

Portuguese prince who started a school for sailors and sponsored early voyages of exploration.

Vasco da Gama

Portuguese explorer. In 1497-1498, he led the first naval expedition from Europe to sail to India, opening an important commercial sea route.

Treaty of Tordesillas

A 1494 agreement between Portugal and Spain, declaring that newly discovered lands to the west of an imaginary line in the Atlantic Ocean would belong to Spain, and newly discovered lands to the east of the line would belong to Portugal.

Dutch East India Company

A company founded by the Dutch in the early...

The Crisis of the Old Regime in Spain (1788-1808)

• Charles IV (1788-1808) left power in the hands of Prime Minister Manuel Godoy.
• In 1807, Godoy allied with Napoleon after signing the Treaty of Fontainebleau. This pact included an agreement to invade and divide Portugal, an ally of Great Britain. Under this pretext, French troops entered the Peninsula and occupied strategic points, making it clear their intention was also to invade Spain.
• This situation caused the *Mutiny of Aranjuez* (1808), which forced Charles IV to dismiss Godoy and abdicate in favor of his son, Ferdinand VII.
• In May 1808, Charles IV and Ferdinand VII were moved to Bayonne, France. There, they abdicated in favor of Napoleon, who yielded the Spanish throne to his brother, Joseph

Answer the Questions

The Bipolar System

The Western Bloc

The Western Bloc was characterized by the following:

• Composition: Comprised countries in Western Europe, the Americas, and Japan.
• Marshall Plan: These nations emerged following the Marshall Plan, through which the United States provided financial support to European countries to foster economic development.
• Political Systems: Primarily democratic, with the notable exceptions of Spain and Portugal.
• NATO: Members of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization, a military alliance established by the United States in 1949.
• Economy: Operated under capitalist economic systems.

The Eastern Bloc

The Eastern Bloc was characterized by the following:

• Composition: Comprised the USSR and communist states across Eastern Europe, Asia,

Causes of World War II and Hitler's Ambitions

The aims of Adolf Hitler when he reached power in 1933 were to:

• Disobey the Treaty of Versailles;
• Create a Greater Germany;
• Obtain Lebensraum (living space) for Germany;
• The first step toward war was leaving the League of Nations;
• Hitler wanted the union of all German-speaking people under Germany;
• Hitler wanted to annex Austria to reunite with his homeland;
• Hitler ordered the Austrian Nazis to create havoc in Austria;
• After the attempted coup, Austria tried to protect itself by being collaborative with Germany and signing treaties with other countries to protect the border;
• After years of political movement, Hitler gained power over Austria thanks to Austrian Nazis;
• In 1936, Germany and Italy signed the Rome-

1. Answer the Questions

What were the Roaring Twenties?

The Roaring Twenties was a decade of economic growth and prosperity in America. This era was abruptly ended by the Wall Street Crash of 1929.

What was the Great Depression?

The Great Depression was a widespread economic recession caused by the stock market crash of 1929 and the subsequent banking crisis.

What is fascism?

Fascism is an ideology that promotes extreme nationalism, state intervention in the economy, the use of violence, authoritarianism, and imperialism. It is characterized by a dictatorial and racist framework.

How did Mussolini and Hitler rise to power?

Benito Mussolini created the Fascisti, a paramilitary group, to suppress the rise of communism and eventually seize power. Adolf...

Long-Term Causes of World War I (WWI)

1. Militarism: The build-up of armed forces and the preparation for war.

   Example: Germany significantly increased her armed forces, ostensibly to defend herself against other European countries.

2. Alliances: Agreements between countries to defend or fight together.

   Example: Many European countries made agreements or promises to help each other if a third country invaded them.

3. Imperialism: The belief of a country in building up an empire and controlling less powerful nations.

   Example: Following unification, Germany sought to expand her Empire and global influence.

4. Nationalism: Intense pride in one's country, often leading people to desire self-governance or strong national defense.

   Example: Many countries in Europe were