The Armed Peace (1890-1914): Causes, Conflicts, and Consequences
The Armed Peace (1890-1914)
The period known as the Armed Peace (1890-1914) followed German unification. Germany, under the leadership of Otto von Bismarck, became a world power. Bismarck sought to isolate France by forming an alliance with Austria and Russia, aiming to maintain stability in the Balkans. However, Wilhelm II, a supporter of aggressive policies, dismissed Bismarck.
The Alliances
- Triple Entente: Russia, France, and the United Kingdom
- Triple Alliance: Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy
Colonial Tensions
Colonial issues were a persistent source of tension, particularly between the United Kingdom and Germany, as well as France and Italy. Conflicts also arose in Eastern Europe.
The Spark: Assassination in Sarajevo
On June 28, 1914, Archduke Franz Ferdinand, the heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne, was assassinated in Sarajevo. On July 23, Austria-Hungary issued an ultimatum to Serbia, threatening war. Austria-Hungary declared war on July 28, marking the beginning of World War I (1914-1918).
Early War Movements (August 1914)
Germany aimed for a swift victory, attacking France and nearly reaching Paris. However, they were defeated at the Battle of the Marne. Simultaneously, Germany attacked Russia but suffered a defeat at the Battle of Tannenberg.
Trench Warfare (1914-1917)
Defensive strategies proved superior to offensive tactics, resulting in significant casualties on all fronts. Allied forces attempted to attack secondary points. British efforts in the Mediterranean faltered. German colonies were conquered by the British, and the Allies, including Japan, occupied the Middle East.
The Crisis of 1917
The Russian Revolution significantly altered the course of the war, with the United States entering the conflict.
The Final Offensive (1918)
The last German offensive failed. An Allied counter-offensive brought the war to an end.
The Toll of War
World War I mobilized 65 million soldiers, who endured months in trenches. Approximately 8 million people died, and 9 million were wounded. The war significantly impacted national economies, transitioning them to wartime production. Civil liberties and trade were suspended, and women entered the workforce. Espionage and counter-espionage became prevalent.
The Treaty of Versailles (1919-1920)
The Treaty of Versailles, signed by the defeated nations, was based on Woodrow Wilson's Fourteen Points. Its objectives were to prevent Germany's resurgence, establish a balance of power, and isolate Russia. Territorial changes included Germany losing its colonies and territories. The Austro-Hungarian Empire fragmented into Czechoslovakia, Hungary, and Austria. The Ottoman Empire transformed into Turkey. Russia lost territories to Poland and Romania. The treaty was perceived as an imposition, fostering resentment in Germany and a desire for revenge. New York became a global financial center.
Post-War Challenges
From 1923, production increased, and living standards improved. New democratic regimes were established but proved fragile, leading to social tensions. Dictatorial regimes emerged, such as Mussolini's in Italy in 1922. Germany struggled to pay war reparations, leading to French occupation of the Ruhr in 1923. The Dawes Plan was implemented. In 1925, the Locarno Treaties were signed, establishing peace between Germany and France.
The Crisis of 1929
Overproduction and speculation in the U.S. led to the Wall Street Crash on October 24, 1929, known as Black Thursday. Unemployment rose, and banks reduced lending. The crisis spread globally as the U.S. reduced imports and repatriated loans.