Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and exercises for History for Secondary education

A World in Crisis

• In the USSR, Stalin came to power, establishing a totalitarian Communist regime that altered political, economic, and social development and influenced the rest of Europe.
• In 1919, the League of Nations was created with the aim of regulating international relations and peacekeeping.
• The economic crisis of 1929 shocked the economies of many nations and put an end to the prosperous 1920s.
• Dictatorships and totalitarian regimes were implemented as an alternative to the democratic system, which was considered ineffective in solving social and economic problems.
• There was a crisis of values and belief in Western civilization.

Political and Economic Evolution

Stalin's USSR

In the late 1920s, the Russian Revolution began its second phase:...

The Prelude to Global Conflict

The years preceding World War II were marked by the aggressive policies of fascist regimes, including the annexation of Austria and Czechoslovakia by Germany, and Albania by Italy. Additionally, Hitler and Mussolini signed numerous agreements seeking new allies and collaboration, such as supporting Franco in the Spanish Civil War and forming a treaty with Japan. In the face of this aggression, European powers reacted weakly due to the fear of another total war.

The First Stage: Axis Victories (1939-1941)

The initial months of the war saw a rapid triumph for the Germans. They quickly conquered Poland, Denmark, Norway, Belgium, Holland, and France. The Nazis decided to divide France into two zones: the northern half...

Vocabulary

Autarky: An economic system that closes the borders of a country to external influence. A country with autarky neither imports nor exports.

Autocracy: A political system where the Tsar governs with absolute power, aided by the church.

Soviet: Meetings and clandestine gatherings of workers and peasants. Later becomes the parliament of the USSR.

Bolshevik: Radical and violent people who want to overthrow the Tsarist regime by force of arms; the Red Army.

Menshevik: Moderates who want to overthrow the Tsarist regime through dialogue; they lost.

Tsarist Regime: The political, economic, and social system in Russia before the Revolution, where the Tsar governs with absolute power.

Dictatorship of the Proletariat: A political system where the...

Origins of World War I: The Armed Peace (1890-1914)

After unification (1870), Germany, the dominant power in international politics through Bismarck, devised a system of alliances between Germany, Austria, and Russia, which was also associated with Italy. This system aimed to achieve:

• The isolation of France, which had become a potential adversary.
• Balance in the Balkans, where Austria and Russia had conflicting interests, and these tensions could be the source of a European conflict.

William II, favoring a more aggressive policy in Europe and imperialist expansion, provoked Bismarck's dismissal (1890). This began a new period in international relations, often called the 'Armed Peace' (1890–1914), characterized by:

• European powers gathering in

The Restoration of Absolutism in Spain

The restoration of absolutism: Fernando VII, called "The Desired", returned to Spain in 1814. The liberals hoped that the king would immediately swear to uphold the Constitution of 1812, but the absolutists pressed for the restoration of the entire absolutist regime and the repeal of liberal legislation from the Cádiz Courts. The king, convinced of the liberals' weakness, instigated a coup d'état, closing the Courts and nullifying the Constitution. The following months saw the restoration of all ancient institutions and the manorial regime. It was a return to the Old Regime. Many liberals were arrested, and others went into exile or hiding. With the support of the most liberal sectors of the army, opponents...

Rail and Steamboat in Britain and Europe

Rail and steamboat in Britain and Europe significantly improved traditional communication channels. Initially, railroads were used to transport ore from mines, with cars running on rails. Early improvements included a new system of iron rails and flanged wheels to keep the cars from leaving their lane.

Stephenson's invention of the locomotive enabled steam-powered railroads. The construction of the railway network in Europe greatly benefited the steel industry. Railroads shortened travel times, increased the safety of travel and cargo, and offered greater capacity.

Steam engines were also applied to maritime transport, with steamships replacing sailing vessels. The first steamers came into use in the United...

Charles IV: A Precursor to Conflict

Charles IV ascended to the throne a year before the French Revolution. The revolution's onset instilled fear, halting all reforms in Spain. Charles IV declared war on France. However, with the rise of Napoleon, the political landscape shifted. Godoy, a key figure during Charles IV's reign, gained influence and signed the Treaty of Fontainebleau with Napoleon, promising mutual aid. Under the pretense of invading Portugal, Napoleon requested passage through Spain. Godoy authorized this, anticipating a share of Portugal. Napoleon then lured the king to Bayonne and forced him to abdicate in favor of his brother, Joseph Bonaparte. The Church and the Spanish people vehemently opposed the French, culminating in the...

Crisis of the Spanish Monarchy (1793-1808)

• Monarchy in Crisis: Carlos IV declared war on France (1793-1795).
• Manuel Godoy, in 1799, shifted political alliances, allying with Napoleon.

The Mutiny of Aranjuez (1808)

• Mutiny of Aranjuez: Popular discontent with Godoy led to this uprising in 1808.
• It prompted the abdication of Carlos IV in favor of Ferdinand VII.
• Napoleon, at Bayonne, compelled both monarchs to abdicate.
• Joseph Bonaparte was subsequently proclaimed King of Spain.

The Spanish War of Independence (1808-1814)

• The French War: Began with a popular revolution on May 2nd, 1808, in Madrid.
• This was an uprising against French troops.
• Local boards were created to direct and coordinate the resistance.
• The Junta Suprema Central (JSC) was established in

The War of Spanish Succession and the Treaty of Utrecht (1713)

A civil war in Spain arose from the succession crisis, with supporters of both Philip of Anjou (Castilian crown) and Archduke Charles (Crown of Aragon). The war concluded with the Treaty of Utrecht, recognizing Philip V as king and granting Great Britain Gibraltar and Minorca.

The Spanish Enlightenment

The Spanish Enlightenment differed from the rest of Europe:

• Led by gentry and bourgeoisie.
• Attempted to reconcile reason with Christian tradition.
• Focused on Spain's economic backwardness and antiquated social organization, as criticized by Campomanes and Jovellanos.
• Advocated for educational reform.

Obstacles to these reforms included resistance from the populace, the nobility and clergy...

Espartero's Regency (1840-1843)

The corruption prevalent in the regent's inner circle and his attempts to control the municipalities turned public opinion against him. María Cristina had to resign and go into exile. The Espartero Regency (1840-1843) was characterized by the Regent's personalism and authoritarian measures, leading him to lose the support of his own party. A new pronouncement brought the Moderates to power and sent Espartero into exile.

Isabella II's Reign: Foundations of the Liberal State

Given the failure of the two regencies, Isabella was declared of age at 13 years old. From then on, a complex rule began, establishing the foundations of the liberal state. Key characteristics of this period included:

• The Army's Influence in Politics

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