World War I: Alliances, Armed Peace, and the Road to Conflict (1890-1918)

Origins of World War I: The Armed Peace (1890-1914)

After unification (1870), Germany, the dominant power in international politics through Bismarck, devised a system of alliances between Germany, Austria, and Russia, which was also associated with Italy. This system aimed to achieve:

• The isolation of France, which had become a potential adversary.
• Balance in the Balkans, where Austria and Russia had conflicting interests, and these tensions could be the source of a European conflict.

William II, favoring a more aggressive policy in Europe and imperialist expansion, provoked Bismarck's dismissal (1890). This began a new period in international relations, often called the 'Armed Peace' (1890–1914), characterized by:

• European powers gathering in two opposing military blocs. Germany, Austria, and Italy signed the 'Triple Alliance'.
• The aggressive foreign policy of William II led France, Russia, and Britain to form the 'Triple Entente'. Russia abandoned the alliance with Germany because of problems in the Balkans.
• Mutual fear leading to an intense arms race.

Sources of Conflict

Colonial issues were a continual source of problems, leading to two crises in Morocco (1905, 1911). The second major source of conflict was the Middle East question. Between 1908 and 1913, three serious crises took place in the area, often involving armed confrontations between the powers.

Development of World War I (1914-1918): Phases and Combatants

The war became global because it involved the respective empires and major powers, and because new countries were added to the conflict. The World War lasted four years.

War of Movement (1914)

The German plan intended for a quick victory over France before turning against Russia. The German state had developed the Schlieffen Plan, a massive surprise attack on France. However, the Germans were stopped at the First Battle of the Marne (1914).

War of Position (Trench Warfare)

The Germans attempted to break the fronts in the Battle of Verdun, and the British attempted to do so in the Battle of the Somme. The Allies tried to break the stalemate by attacking secondary zones:

• Mediterranean: The British failed to achieve their objectives here.
• Colonial Fronts: German colonies were conquered by the British.
• Middle East: The British fleet blockaded Germany, which resorted to intense submarine warfare.