Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and exercises for History for Secondary education

World War I: The Great War Begins

The Spark and Early Movements

World War I began with the attack on Sarajevo's Archduke Francis Ferdinand. War movements included the German plan for a fast attack through Belgium and the Battle of the Marne in France to stop Germany. Simultaneously, there was a Russian offensive on the Eastern Front.

Trench Warfare and Major Battles

The conflict evolved into trench warfare, leading to the immobilization of the Western Front. One of the most significant engagements during this period was the Battle of Verdun.

The Crisis of 1917 and the End of War

The Crisis of 1917 saw Russia avoiding further war, the United States' entry into the conflict, and a rising wave of pacifism. The war concluded with the Triumph of the Allies,...

The Treaty of Versailles and the Rise of Totalitarianism

The Treaty of Versailles was a peace treaty at the end of World War I. It officially ended the state of war between Germany and the Allied countries. It was signed on June 28, 1919, in the Hall of Mirrors at the Palace of Versailles, exactly five years after the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand, one of the events that triggered the First World War. Although the armistice was signed on November 11, 1918, to stop the actual fighting, it took six months of negotiations at the Paris Peace Conference to conclude a peace treaty. The Treaty entered into force on January 10, 1920.

Of the many provisions of the treaty, one of the most important and controversial required that Germany and...

Living Through the War

Hunger and Repression

Life during the war was defined by famine, death, and fear. Supplying food to the population presented a serious problem, particularly in the Republican zone, as the Nationalists controlled key agricultural territories from the outset. Food rationing was a common practice. The authorities established the amounts of certain foods that could be received per person per day, while others could only be acquired by prescription.

The civilian population also suffered from the fear of fierce fighting and the bombing of besieged cities. Families feared the recruitment of their youngest members and the separation this caused. Everyday life was also shattered by the retaliation that took place on both sides against...

Francisco de Goya y Lucientes

Francisco de Goya y Lucientes (Fuendetodos, Zaragoza, March 30, 1746 - Bordeaux, France, April 15, 1828) was a Spanish painter and engraver. His work encompasses easel and mural painting, printmaking, and drawing. In all these facets, he developed a style that inaugurated Romanticism. Goya's art also marks the beginning of contemporary painting and is considered a forerunner of twentieth-century avant-garde painting. Some of his most famous works include: *The Disasters of War*, *La Maja Desnuda*, *The Charge of the Mamluks*, *The Third of May 1808*, and *Saturn Devouring His Son*.

Antonio Cánovas del Castillo

Antonio Cánovas del Castillo (Málaga, February 8, 1828 - Mondragón, Guipúzcoa, August 8, 1897) was a...

Social Foundations of the Franco Regime

The Franco regime garnered support from the business oligarchy and terratenientes (landowners). A significant portion of the middle class and workers, exhausted by war, were resigned to accept the regime in exchange for stability and guaranteed tranquility.

Ideological Pillars of the Francoist State

The regime's theoretical doctrine, primarily Falangist, incorporated symbols of European fascism, such as the raised-hand salute, while also drawing on the traditionalism that had characterized some Spanish thought. Franco was proclaimed the heir to Spain's glorious Catholic Kings. A strong militarism, stemming from the army's role in the 1936 coup, and Catholic nationalism were central. The Catholic Church established...

Civil War and the Creation of the USSR

The new Soviet government faced a long civil war from 1918 to 1921. A part of the tsarist army, known as the White Army, took up arms against the new regime. In response, the Bolsheviks, under the leadership of Leon Trotsky, raised the Red Army and ultimately managed to prevail.

However, the war left the country mired in poverty, causing five million deaths from hunger and a collapse in production. Throughout the conflict, the Bolshevik party, which had been renamed the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU) in 1918, monopolized power, excluding all other parties. In 1922, they established the USSR (Union of Soviet Socialist Republics), a federal state that brought together all the nationalities of the...

The Russian Revolution

In October 1917, the first worker and peasant revolution in history triumphed in Russia. The early Russian discourse on revolution was shaped by the largest empire in the world, where feudalism still held sway. The Tsar had absolute power, and most of the population were peasants whose lands were owned by large landowners.

Causes of the Revolution

• Demand for citizenship rights and freedoms
• Poverty of the peasantry and the proletariat
• Russia's participation in World War I: defeat of the Central Empires, rising prices, and shortages of essential goods
• Poor people's participation in the Duma
• Constitutional issues with a few liberal reforms

Revolution of 1917

In February 1917, peasants, workers, and soldiers staged a revolution...

Initial Phase: War of Movement (1914)

The early phase of the war in 1914 involved rapid movements before trench lines solidified. Key early battles included:

• Battle of Tannenberg

  A significant German victory against Russia.

• Battle of the Marne

  A crucial Allied (French and British) victory that halted the German advance towards Paris.

Trench Warfare: War of Positions (1915-1917)

From 1915 to 1917, the war became characterized by static, bloody trench warfare. Vast trench systems were established, leading to brutal battles of attrition with little territorial gain.

• Battle of Verdun (1916)

  A lengthy and costly battle, often considered a French strategic victory despite immense casualties on both sides.

• Battle of the Somme (1916)

  An Allied offensive marked

The Liberal Triennium (1820-1823)

During this period, the National Militia was created, and King Ferdinand VII was forced to accept the Constitution of Cádiz.

The Pragmatic Sanction of 1832

Enacted in 1832, this decree abolished the Salic Law, thereby allowing women to ascend to the Spanish throne.

Disentailment Policies: Mendizábal and Madoz

The Disentailment of Mendizábal occurred in 1836. The Disentailment of Madoz (1854-1856) took place during the Progressive Biennium, similar to Mendizábal's but with a focus on municipal properties (Ayuntamientos).

The Glorious Revolution of 1868

Known as "La Gloriosa," this insurrection began in Cádiz, led by Generals Prim, Serrano, and Admiral Topete, against Queen Isabel II. Following their victory at...