Spain in the 19th Century: Absolutism, Independence, and Revolution

The Restoration of Absolutism in Spain

The restoration of absolutism: Fernando VII, called "The Desired", returned to Spain in 1814. The liberals hoped that the king would immediately swear to uphold the Constitution of 1812, but the absolutists pressed for the restoration of the entire absolutist regime and the repeal of liberal legislation from the Cádiz Courts. The king, convinced of the liberals' weakness, instigated a coup d'état, closing the Courts and nullifying the Constitution. The following months saw the restoration of all ancient institutions and the manorial regime. It was a return to the Old Regime. Many liberals were arrested, and others went into exile or hiding. With the support of the most liberal sectors of the army, opponents of absolutism organized many uprisings, most of which were repressed, and their officers or leaders executed, such as Mariana Pineda, Lacy, and Porlier.

The Reasons for Independence of the American Colonies

It all happened because unrest in the colonies had been brewing for decades, which erupted into wars of independence. The factors that led to this were:

1. The dissemination of Enlightenment ideas and the principles of liberty and equality promoted by the French Revolution.
2. The success of the revolt in the British colonies of North America, which ended with the proclamation of the independence of the United States.
3. The Creole discontent. The Creole bourgeoisie saw Spain as a hindrance to the American economy, hindering trade and imposing heavy tax burdens.

The Revolution of 1868 in Spain

There was a severe economic crisis, coupled with the wear and tear of the Elizabethan regime's policies, which unleashed a revolution against the monarchy. The rebels were marginalized groups of power: Unionists, Progressives, and Democrats, who came together to present an alternative system based on the democratization of political life and economic recovery. The movement, led by the military figures Prim and Serrano, erupted in September 1868 with the revolt of Brigadier Topete's squadron in Cádiz. A provisional government headed by Prim and Serrano was formed, which instigated a program of reforms. Finally, a new Parliament was elected, which adopted the Constitution of 1869, democratic in character.

The Crisis of 1898

A new insurrection broke out in Cuba due to the inability of the Spanish administration to carry out political reforms on the island, grant it autonomy, and reduce the economic control exercised from Spain. The end of the conflict came in 1898 when the United States declared war on Spain after the sinking of the American battleship Maine in the harbor of Havana. After a short war, Spain was defeated and lost its last colonies: Cuba, Puerto Rico, and the Philippines. The defeat caused a state of frustration in Spanish society and the political class, and a strong feeling of pessimism took root. Reactionary movements emerged, such as Regenerationism.

Key Terms

• Ruler: A person designated to exercise royal powers in the event that the monarch is unable to do so.
• Regenerationism: An intellectual and political movement in Spain that proposed to end the corrupt political system of the Restoration and the unequal distribution of land, and to promote education to raise the cultural level of the Spanish people.
• Absolutism: A form of government in which the ruling power is not subject to any institutional constraint other than divine law. It is a power that is unique from a formal point of view, indivisible, inalienable, intranscriptible, and free.
• Carlism: A loyalist, illiberal, and anti-revolutionary political movement that emerged in Spain in the 19th century. It seeks the establishment of an alternative branch of the Bourbon dynasty on the Spanish throne, originally advocating a return to the Old Regime.