Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and exercises for History for Secondary education

March 24, 1976: Anniversary of the Coup and the National Day of Memory for Truth and Justice

On this day, a military junta led by General Jorge Rafael Videla, Admiral Emilio Eduardo Massera, and Brigadier Orlando Ramon Agosti overthrew President María Estela Martínez de Perón. The junta initiated the National Reorganization Process, aiming to restructure the state and society. Congress was dissolved, political parties were suspended, and provincial and municipal governments were addressed.

April 2, 1982: Veterans Day and the Fall of the Falklands War

Argentine forces landed on the Falkland Islands in an attempt to reclaim sovereignty lost to Britain in 1833. This action, known as the Falklands War, ended on June 14th with Argentina's surrender....

The Sixteenth-Century Monarchy: Iberian Union

In 1580, Philip II inherited Portugal, becoming the ruler of the largest empire in history. Despite mutual distrust, the interests of the Portuguese aristocracy and bourgeoisie were now much closer to those of the Spanish than two centuries prior, when King Juan I of Castile had tried to become king of Portugal.

Sixteenth-Century Spain: The Habsburg Political Model

It was a multinational monarchy, consisting of widely scattered kingdoms with a high degree of autonomy, but under the rule of Castile. This system developed the model of the Catholic Monarchs, establishing an authoritarian monarchy. The governing bodies under Philip II were:

1. The Monarch: The center of power and of the Court, located in Madrid

The Collapse of the Spanish Restoration (1902-1917)

Political Instability and Weaknesses

In 1902, Alfonso XIII's reign began. Despite inheriting the system established by Cánovas del Castillo, the early 20th century revealed significant weaknesses. The two-party system fragmented, and Alfonso XIII's frequent mistakes and inaction exacerbated the situation. Other factors contributed to the Restoration's decline: persistent caciquismo (local boss rule), growing social unrest, anarchist terrorism, and a lack of trust from the economic elite.

Opposition Groups

Various groups opposed the Restoration. These included Republicans (both moderate and extremist), Basque nationalists, and Catalan nationalists.

The Rise of Proletarian Opposition

The anarchist...

The Illustration: The Powers of the State

Division of Powers - First President of the First Government Junta

Mateo de Toro Zambrano, 1810. The First Government Junta in 1823. Bernardo O'Higgins renounced free trade with the allied nations of Spain. This is related to the *Good Air* board. New military units were created, the *Real Audiencia* was abolished, and a National Congress was convened.

First National Congress (July 4, 1811)

The First National Congress was considered only temporary because many of its members did not want the independence of Chile. Freedom of the womb was created by José Miguel Carrera.

José Miguel Carrera's Government

Carrera created *The Aurora of Chile*, directed by Fray Camilo Henríquez. The 1812 Constitutional Regulations...

The Revolt of the Comuneros

The cities were discontented due to new taxes, while the nobility resented the king's appointment of foreigners to crucial government positions. The cities, known as comunidades de villa y tierra, initiated the Revolt of the Comuneros, initially gaining support from the nobles.

The rebels achieved significant success during the initial months of the revolt. However, the king later reached an agreement with the Castilian nobles, and together they confronted the rebels. The decisive battle was fought in Villalar, where the king emerged victorious. Juan de Padilla, Juan Bravo, and Francisco Maldonado, the prominent leaders of the revolt, were subsequently executed.

This revolt profoundly altered Charles V's approach to...

Early Francoism: The Autarky Period (1939–1959)

Francoism was a political system created by Francisco Franco.

It rejected democracy and was based on militarism, conservative Catholicism, and the unity of Spain. This early period of the regime lasted from 1939 to 1959.

Characteristics of the Regime

• All power was concentrated in Franco’s hands.
• He abolished the Constitution, elections, and Parliament.
• Political parties and trade unions were banned, except for the official party, the **Falange and JONS**.
• It was a highly centralized state.
• There was widespread persecution and violence against opponents of the regime.

Post-War Conditions and Autarky

After the Civil War, Spain was devastated. Approximately 1 million people died, and the country suffered...

How Did Stalin Impose His Power?

In 1929, Stalin took control of the government and established a personal dictatorship, based on:

Cult of Personality

• Propaganda was used to depict Stalin as the "great benefactor" and "father" of the people. Any positive traits in his enemies were eliminated from public view.

Terror and Repression

• All opposition was silenced. This was enforced by a secret police force called the NKVD. The public also contributed by denouncing alleged "counter-revolutionaries".
• The most intense purges took place between 1933 and 1939. At the Moscow Trials, former party leaders were forced to confess to crimes that they had not committed.
• Thousands of people were killed or sent to concentration camps (gulags), located mainly in Siberia,

Franco's Spain was characterized by a personal dictatorship, militarism, Catholicism, and Spanish unitary nationalism. It operated as a single-party state, with the Spanish Falange suppressing political opposition and trade unions. The country experienced a permanent division between the victors and the vanquished.

Social support for the regime came from the army, the church, the Falange, traditionalists, landowners, financiers, business owners, small and medium agricultural owners, and the middle class.

The totalitarian stage saw the establishment of a new political regime without a constitution or democratic freedoms, concentrating all power in Franco. Institutions from the Republican era were dismantled, including the 1931 Constitution with...

The people, mostly *Criollos*, demanded that these meetings be open, not exclusively for colonial authorities. The establishment of the juntas marked the beginning of the movement towards independence.

Causes of Independence

• Latin American cities experienced significant growth, particularly large commercial centers and cities housing government seats or courts of law.
• The urban middle class embraced liberal ideas discussed in their newspapers. They were inspired by the French Revolution and the independence of the United States, admiring these nations while viewing Spain as a symbol of absolutism.
• *Criollos* felt marginalized by colonial authorities, as they were denied the most important government positions.
• Great Britain sought access to the

The Enlightenment: Ideas and Impact

The Enlightenment was based on Sapere Aude (Latin for "Dare to Know"), a call for individuals to use their own reason and understanding.

Key Enlightenment Thinkers

• Montesquieu
• Voltaire
• Rousseau
• John Locke (in England)

Core Enlightenment Ideas

• National Sovereignty: Power resides with the people.
• Division of Powers:
  • Legislative: Makes laws.
  • Executive: Governs and enforces laws.
  • Judicial: Interprets laws and administers justice.
• Equality of Citizens: All men are born free and equal.

Enlightened Despotism in Europe

Some monarchs in Europe adopted new Enlightenment ideas into their governments. However, they retained absolute power, caring for the welfare of their people but without their direct participation. Their motto was:...