Spain's Golden Age: Monarchy, Politics, and Renaissance Flourishing

The Sixteenth-Century Monarchy: Iberian Union

In 1580, Philip II inherited Portugal, becoming the ruler of the largest empire in history. Despite mutual distrust, the interests of the Portuguese aristocracy and bourgeoisie were now much closer to those of the Spanish than two centuries prior, when King Juan I of Castile had tried to become king of Portugal.

Sixteenth-Century Spain: The Habsburg Political Model

It was a multinational monarchy, consisting of widely scattered kingdoms with a high degree of autonomy, but under the rule of Castile. This system developed the model of the Catholic Monarchs, establishing an authoritarian monarchy. The governing bodies under Philip II were:

1. The Monarch: The center of power and of the Court, located in Madrid since 1561. The Greater Habsburgs (Charles I and Philip II) ruled directly, but later delegated to junior validos (favorites) like Lerma and Olivares.
2. Councils: There was a Council of State, territorial councils (Castile, Aragon, Naples, etc.), and specialized councils (Inquisition, Treasury, War, etc.). This system of government is known as polysynodal.
3. Secretaries or Chancellors: These individuals served as links between the king and the Councils, holding significant power.
4. Viceroys: The king's personal representatives in non-Castilian territories, such as the Netherlands.
5. The Cortes: Present in Castile, Navarre, and Aragon, they gradually lost power over time.
6. Audiencias: These bodies functioned as superior courts.

The Renaissance in Spain

In the second half of the 15th century, Spain embraced Italian Humanism, aided by the advent of the printing press and the influence of Italian humanists. Notable humanists included Antonio de Nebrija, author of the first Gramática Castellana (1492), and Cardinal Cisneros, founder of the University of Alcalá de Henares, where the Polyglot Bible was published. The Catholic Monarchs, Charles I, and Philip II promoted culture, but the staunch defense of Catholicism hindered cultural development in the mid-16th century. The Inquisition prevented free thought, and scientific progress was delayed. Erasmianism, though widespread, was eventually stifled by the Counter-Reformation.

In literature, Garcilaso de la Vega excelled in poetry, alongside mystical poetry (Teresa of Ávila, John of the Cross) and the picaresque novel.

In art, Flemish and Renaissance influences merged with those of the late Gothic style in the Isabelline Gothic (e.g., San Juan de los Reyes). Sixteenth-century architecture evolved through three stages:

• Plateresque (e.g., University of Salamanca)
• Purism (e.g., Palace of Charles V at the Alhambra in Granada)
• Herrerian (e.g., El Escorial, completed by Juan de Herrera)

Alonso Berruguete excelled with polychrome wooden religious carvings, and El Greco (1541-1614), a Cretan living in Toledo, became renowned for his Mannerist paintings (e.g., The Burial of Count Orgaz).