Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and exercises for History for Baccalaureate

_{Mahatma Gandhi was born on October 2, 1869 A.D. in a trading family of Porbandar, a small town in Kathiawar. His full name was Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi, and his father was the Diwan of Rajkot. He went to South Africa after marriage and worked as a barrister there for twenty years. In South Africa, he had his first encounter with apartheid. Once while traveling on a train, he was thrown out of the first-class compartment despite having a ticket. This incident motivated him to fight against apartheid. Upon returning to India, he found his country under British rule, and his fellow citizens facing harsh treatment.}

Role of Mahatma Gandhi in Freedom Struggle

_{Like other great men in history, Gandhi took time to develop his techniques to ensure his}

1. The Background: The Great Depression

1929 Wall Street Crash and the Great Depression

The economic collapse triggered several critical consequences:

• Short-term impacts: A sharp drop in industrial production and dramatic spikes in unemployment.
• Economic pressure: Governments struggled to balance budgets, leading to reduced defense spending and an urgent need to secure new markets and raw materials.
• Diplomatic hesitation: Nations became increasingly reluctant to impose economic sanctions.

Impacts on Politics and International Relations

• Rise of Extremism: Extremist parties gained power, fostering militarism.
• Nationalism: Countries prioritized self-interest, leading to increased hostility and impatience toward neighbors.
• Expansionism: Dissatisfied nations

The Reign of George I and the Whig Supremacy

During the era of the Early Hanoverians, George I faced significant opposition in Parliament between the Tories and the Whigs. Ultimately, the Whigs became the dominant political force. The first Prime Minister, Sir Robert Walpole, promoted trade, opposed war and military expenses, and sought to reduce taxes.

This period is considered a Golden Age because political debate extended to an intellectual elite. Politics became subject to the wit and satire of authors like Daniel Defoe and Jonathan Swift. The liberal philosophy of John Locke and the rise of coffee houses provided new ways to share cultural ideas through periodical pamphlets. During this time, a new religious movement emerged: Methodism (...

Political Repercussions: Spain and China

Repression

Spain

• Francisco Franco's regime showed no interest in reconciliation.
• Approximately 50,000 executions and 20,000 internment camps were established.
• The 1939 Law of Political Responsibilities was enacted.
• Around 250,000 people were exiled, including figures like Manuel de Falla.
• SJ Lee noted that repression relaxed over time.

China

• The 1951 Three-Anti Campaign and the 1952 Five-Anti Campaign continued the terror.
• These campaigns targeted those who believed in private property, labeling them as "class enemies" according to the Chinese Communist Party (CCP).
• These killings were referred to as the "neoplasm classified," implying they were seen as a cancerous growth to be eradicated.
• Approximately 90% of the

Key Political Figures of the Interwar Era

Franklin D. Roosevelt: A U.S. president who introduced the New Deal. He led the country's recovery after the Great Depression, oversaw North American participation in World War II, and supported the creation of the United Nations.

Adolf Hitler: A German politician and leader of the National Socialist German Workers' Party. He came to power in 1933, leading a totalitarian regime known as the Third Reich.

Benito Mussolini: An Italian politician and founder of Fascism. He came to power in 1922 after the March on Rome, establishing a regime characterized by nationalism, militarism, and the rejection of liberalism and communism.

Joseph Stalin: A Soviet politician who came to power in the USSR after Lenin's death...

Consequences of World War I

Following the conclusion of World War I, the Allied powers convened peace talks to determine the future global order.

The Paris Peace Conference and the Big Four

• The Allies held peace talks at Versailles, France, in 1919.
• The principal leaders involved were known as “The Big Four”:
  • Italy: Vittorio Emanuele Orlando
  • France: Georges Clemenceau
  • Great Britain (GB): David Lloyd George
  • USA: Woodrow Wilson
• U.S. President Woodrow Wilson presented his plan for lasting peace, known as the Fourteen Points, advocating for “peace without victory.”
• A key principle was Self-determination: the right of different nationalities to form their own independent nations.
• Wilson's 14th point called for the formation of the League of Nations.

Location and History

Toledo Cathedral is located in the city of Toledo, Spain. Its construction spanned from the 13th to 15th centuries.

Plan and Structure

The cathedral follows a Latin cross plan, with the following key features:

Entrance

• Faces west
• Façade with main gate and two towers
• Three portals (portico)
• Highly decorated tympanum

Nave

• Five naves divided by columns and pillars
• Central nave taller and wider than lateral naves
• Ribbed vaults (bovedas de cruceria)
• Pointed arches

Transept

• Short arm that does not protrude from the plan
• Dome at the crossing
• Altar behind the dome

Apse

• Large apse
• Two deambulatory or girols

Materials and Style

The cathedral is constructed primarily of stone, with stained glass windows and rose windows.

The architectural style is Gothic,...

Russian Revolution: The Path to Change

Russia Under Tsarist Rule: Seeds of Discontent

His government was unpopular for several reasons:

• The Tsar held absolute power; there was no parliament. The country's wealth and land were primarily owned by a noble class, and the Church was firmly on the Tsar's side.
• Peasant villages were controlled by the ‘mir’ (local council), which interfered in business and had the power to decide what peasants were allowed to own.
• The growth of industry led to a large working population, but workers faced poor conditions and low wages.
• In 1905, Russia suffered a humiliating defeat by Japan.
• There were widespread strikes and demonstrations, such as Bloody Sunday. Workers marched to the Tsar's Winter Palace asking for better

Pancho Villa and the Mexican Revolution

Pancho Villa (1878–1923) was a famed Mexican revolutionary and guerrilla leader. He joined Francisco Madero’s uprising against Mexican President Porfirio Díaz in 1909 and later became the leader of the División del Norte cavalry and governor of Chihuahua. After clashing with former revolutionary ally Venustiano Carranza, Villa killed more than 30 Americans in a pair of attacks in 1916. This prompted the deployment of a U.S. military expedition into Mexico, but Villa eluded capture during the 11-month manhunt. Pardoned by Mexican President Adolfo de la Huerta in 1920, Villa retired to a quiet life at his ranch until his assassination.

Early Life and Origins

Born Doroteo Arango on June 5, 1878, in Río...