Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and exercises for History for Baccalaureate

Environmental Challenges and Their Impact

The Devastating Consequences of Environmental Degradation

In recent decades, environmental problems such as excessive pollution, deforestation, and the depletion of natural resources have had devastating consequences. Many species are endangered, and others have already disappeared.

Taking Action for a Sustainable Future

We can take steps in our daily lives to mitigate these issues:

• Reduce, Reuse, Recycle: Minimize consumption and prioritize recycling and reuse.
• Government Regulation: Advocate for stricter laws to curb pollution and protect natural resources.
• Fire Prevention and Accountability: Implement measures to control fires and hold those responsible for environmental damage accountable.

We must recognize...

The Viking Age: Invasion and Expansion (c. 800–1050)

The period known as ‘The Viking Age’ lasted approximately 800–1050 CE. During this time, Vikings expanded across vast territories:

• They reached Russia, the Mediterranean, and Asia.
• They sailed the North Atlantic, settling in Greenland, Iceland, and Newfoundland.

Viking Shipbuilding and Seafaring Skills

Viking success was built on their superiority in shipbuilding technology and sailing skills.

• The longest Viking ships were over 35 meters long and were crewed by eighty men.
• They were constructed from durable woods: oak, ash, elm, or pine.
• Their symmetrical design meant the ships were easy to maneuver, allowing for rapid raids and retreats.

Viking Raids and Settlement in the British Isles

The...

Roman Britain: Conquest and Early Rule

Early Roman Expeditions

• Julius Caesar: Campaigns in 55 BC and 54 BC.
• Caesar was murdered in 44 BC.
• Indirect Romanization: Achieved through treaties, tribute, trade, elite exchange of luxury goods, and Roman education for chiefs’ sons.

The Claudian Invasion of 43 AD

• The invasion occurred in 43 AD under Emperor Claudius (in office since 41 AD, succeeding Caligula).
• The lowlands (approximately half of modern England) were easily invaded within four years of campaigning; three client kingdoms were respected.

Resistance Against Roman Rule

Boudicca's Rebellion (60-61 AD)

• Boudicca was the wife of the client king of the Iceni in what is now Norfolk.
• When her husband died, she was flogged and her daughters raped.
• Her rebellion

Traits of Fascism

Fascism emerged in Italy after the First World War and became the most prominent ideology in the interwar period. The anti-parliamentary and anti-fascist stance became the main dividing line between political parties and citizens. Key doctrinal principles that characterize fascism include:

Radical Nationalism

Fascism often embodies the nationalism of peoples defeated in a contest or defrauded for not achieving what they consider a right. This radical nationalism easily transitions into imperialism, land claims, and an aggressive, militaristic, and anti-liberal policy.

Anti-Parliamentarianism

Fascism encourages the submission of the individual and the denial of personal freedoms. Individuals are subordinate to the dictatorial state,...

Spanish Civil War: Uprising and Outbreak (1936)

The Spanish Civil War began with an uprising in Melilla in 1936. It quickly spread throughout the Protectorate of Morocco, and subsequently to the Peninsula and archipelagos. The government of Casares Quiroga reacted slowly. The main architects of the uprising were Generals Mola, Franco, and Sanjurjo. Franco moved from the Canary Islands to Morocco to take command of the Legion. After a plane crash that killed Sanjurjo, the National Defense Council was formed to direct the military operations of the Nationalist side.

Nationalist Successes and Failures

The coup succeeded in:

• Galicia
• Castilla-León
• Navarra (with General Mola in Pamplona)
• Western Andalusia (with Queipo de Llano in Seville)
• Balearic Islands

The post-war period saw the emergence of a black market, operating outside the official Catholic legal framework that influenced much of the regime's early policies.

Post-1945 Francoist Spain: Reforms & Opposition

The 1945 Political Shift in Francoist Spain

In 1945, the government replaced Falangist ministers with Catholics and introduced policies aimed at greater openness to the outside world. This period saw the enactment of several fundamental laws:

Franco's Fundamental Laws and Succession

Key Legislation and Referendum Process

• The Charter of Spaniards: Promulgated as a declaration of rights and duties.
• The National Referendum Act: Established a procedure for popular ratification of legal texts considered transcendental. However, this procedure

The Liberal State and Moderate Rule (1843–1868)

During this period, a Liberal State was established, primarily ruled by the Moderates, led by General Narváez. This era is divided into three distinct phases:

The Moderate Decade (1844–1854)

General Narváez imposed a political system where order superseded freedom (known as doctrinaire liberalism). This was a highly corrupt period characterized by rigged elections and the marginalization of the Progresistas. The Constitution of 1845, which was notably conservative, was promulgated.

Key Policies of the Moderate Decade:

• Provincial administration was centralized, ensuring local control by the government.
• The Civil Guard was created to maintain order in rural areas (as the Army already controlled

Development of Conflict: War, Trench Warfare, and Movements
Germany and Austria-Hungary possessed powerful armies and benefited from geographically dispersed enemies, allowing for easier communications. However, a two-front war was required for a swift victory. Conversely, the French and British naval blockade could isolate them. The German plan involved a rapid strike against France, advancing through Belgium and Luxembourg. France was expected to capitulate, enabling the Central Powers to focus their efforts on the Russian front. Germanic armies advanced into France, invading Belgium unopposed. In September 1914, German forces were within 40 miles of Paris. The French armies managed to halt the German advance at the Battle of the Marne. The...

The French Revolution

Origins of the Revolution

• The Estates System and Economic Issues

France faced a severe economic crisis in the late eighteenth century, significantly impacting its real estate. Economic and social reforms, inspired by Enlightenment ideals, began to emerge. Some of these reforms targeted the estates system by proposing taxes on the privileged classes. However, these classes refused to accept the tax reforms and other economic changes.

France's intervention in the American War of Independence worsened the crisis. The only viable solution was to increase revenue by compelling the privileged to contribute financially. A Notable Assembly rejected the principle of tax equality. The minister resigned and was replaced by another who...

The Announcement of Cortes

The Supreme Central Junta, unable to lead the war, dissolved in January 1810. Before dissolving, it initiated the process of convening a parliament for representatives of the nation, deciding on its organization, maintaining courts, and establishing a five-member regency. The Cortes opened in September 1810, and the liberal sector achieved its first victory by forcing the formation of a single chamber. They approved the principle of national sovereignty, recognizing that power resides in the citizens, represented in Parliament.

The Constitution of 1812

Promulgated on March 19, 1812, the constitution included a bill of rights for citizens:

• Freedom of thought and opinion
• Equality of Spaniards before the law
• Right of petition
• Civil