Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and exercises for History for Baccalaureate

The Democratic Sexennium and Glorious Revolution (1868-1874)

The period began with the September 1868 Revolution, also known as the Glorious Revolution. General Juan Bautista Topete led a military uprising. On September 28, he won a decisive battle, marking a turning point in the revolution. The government resigned, and Queen Isabella II was exiled. Revolutionary juntas were formed, appointing an interim government and General Francisco Serrano as regent. The new government promulgated a series of decrees to satisfy popular demands.

The Constitution of 1869, considered a pioneering democratic document, established a comprehensive system of rights and freedoms. It proclaimed national sovereignty and declared Spain a monarchical state, but the...

Following the Napoleonic Wars, the Germanic Confederation was established in 1815, comprising more than thirty states. Among these, the Austrian Empire and the Kingdom of Prussia were the most prominent. Both states also held significant territories outside the Confederation's borders. The Kingdom of Denmark, for its part, included a region (Holstein) within the Confederation.

Most of the population within the Confederation shared a cultural link: language. However, a significant portion of the Confederation's population did not speak German. Conversely, German-speaking populations existed in other parts of Europe. The Revolution of 1848 failed to achieve unification among the various German states and address the concerns of non-German minorities....

Ulises Heureaux's Era and US Intervention in the Dominican Republic

During Ulises Heureaux's rule, the Dominican Republic was led into financial chaos. An interventionist US policy was pushed through by taking control of the country's finances. After Heureaux's death, struggles for power revived. The country saw the emergence of new leaders and political groups, including Jimenistas, Horacistas, and Velazquistas.

The financial chaos was used as justification for US military intervention in 1916. This occupation lasted eight years and brought a rapid process of changes, including:

• Disarmament of the population
• Replacement of the National Guard with US-controlled armed forces
• Changes in the system of land holdings
• An aggressive public works program
• Intensive

19th Century European Revolutions

Three Waves: 1820, 1830, 1848

In the nineteenth century, there were three main revolutionary waves: 1820, 1830, and 1848. The term 'wave' is used because, typically, a revolution began in a specific nation and from there spread to other countries.

Driving Ideologies: Liberalism & Nationalism

In these revolutions, liberalism and nationalism often acted together, with one predominantly influencing the other, but democratic ideals also played a significant role. Liberals and Democrats were distinguished mainly by the type of suffrage they advocated for:

• Liberals defended census suffrage or restricted suffrage. For liberals, who staged the first revolutions, only individuals appearing in a census as property owners

The Ominous Decade (1823-1833)

The end of the liberal regime was caused by the action of the Holy Alliance, which commissioned France to intervene in Spain. Approximately 100,000 soldiers, known as the Hundred Thousand Sons of Saint Louis and commanded by the Duke of Angoulême, stormed into Spain, and Ferdinand VII was restored as an absolute monarch.

However, the powers that sought this restoration also introduced moderate reforms, proclaimed an amnesty, and organized an effective administration to ensure stability. Ferdinand VII did not accept these requests, leading to a fierce repression against the Liberals. A notable event of this repression was the execution of Mariana Pineda.

Another concern for the monarchy was its economic problems....

A-Historical Context: Athens, the Decline of Splendor (5th-4th Centuries BC)

The Persian Wars

1. The First Persian War (490 BC)

Occasion (500 BC): Revolt of the Ionian cities against the Persians. Disaster.

Battle of Marathon (490 BC): Persians defeated by the Athenians.

2. The Second Persian War (480 BC)

Xerxes I, son of Darius, attempts to conquer Greece. Athenians and Spartans unite against the Persians. After the battles of Thermopylae, Salamis, and Plataea, the Greeks win the war.

The Rise of Athens

Athens becomes an economic power, establishing the Delian League. Rivalries resurface between Athens and Sparta, leading to the Peloponnesian War.

The Golden Age of Pericles

Pericles is chosen as strategos. Athenian democracy is reformed and transformed....

The Vietnam War

The Indochina Peninsula was a French colony. France withdrew from the area after a long war, culminating in defeat. The Geneva Accords of 1954 left Vietnam divided into two states: North Vietnam, with a communist regime led by Ho Chi Minh, and South Vietnam, ruled by a pro-Western dictatorship prompted by Ngo Dinh Diem. These agreements established an interim dividing line between North and South at the 17th parallel and provided for the reunification of the country after elections.

In South Vietnam, there was a communist guerrilla group, the Viet Cong, supported by the North Vietnamese regime. The U.S. government decided to support the South Vietnamese regime, fearing that the Viet Cong would impose communism throughout the country....

Social Aspect: Repression and Control

The social division in Spain after the Civil War was a tragic reality. Approximately 300,000 Republicans were detained, many of whom were workers. Additionally, 7,000 schoolteachers were imprisoned for their political ideas; of these, about 6,000 were shot, and thousands more lost their jobs. In Madrid alone, in the weeks following the entry of Nationalist forces, there were approximately 50,000 arrests.

Between 200 and 300 people were shot daily in Madrid, 150 in Barcelona, and 80 in Seville, among other locations. In total, between April 1, 1939, and June 30, 1944, about 200,000 Republicans were executed; some had to wait years before their fate was decided. Those who were spared the death penalty had to...

Political Shift and the Bienio Negro

The new executive guided its political action towards the dismantling of any previous government reform. The 'Black Biennium' (Bienio Negro) was structured around the Radical Party led by Lerroux and the CEDA led by José María Gil Robles.

The conservative turn resulted in a radicalization of the PSOE and UGT.

The CEDA Enters Government

Strikes and conflicts caused the CEDA to demand direct participation in the government, threatening to withdraw parliamentary support from Lerroux. Thus, it was granted 3 ministerial portfolios.

The 1934 Revolution and Its Impact

The entrance of the CEDA into the government was seen by the left as a road to fascism, and the next day there were general strikes in the large cities....

Venezuelan Political History: Key Figures

Cipriano Castro's Rise to Power

Cipriano Castro, a democratic president in the Andean region, is considered a significant figure in Venezuelan history.

The Junta After Medina Angarita's Coup

Following the coup that ousted President Medina Angarita, a government board was formed. Rómulo Betancourt was appointed Chairman of the Revolutionary Government Junta.

Castro's Suppression of Armed Groups

Cipriano Castro effectively countered armed groups due to the army's superior military strategies and modern arsenal, which proved more effective than traditional guerrilla tactics.

Political Conflicts (1830-1839)

In the early days of the new republic, President José Antonio Páez not only retained the best land expropriated...