Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and exercises for History for Baccalaureate

Economic Recovery in Germany (1930s)

Germany presented an example of economic recovery achieved within a totalitarian state. This recovery was driven by strong enabling policy interventionism designed to stimulate the growth of heavy industry.

Key economic strategies included:

• Significant expansion of public works programs.
• Strict restrictions on imports.
• A push for economic self-sufficiency (Autarky), aiming to produce internally everything needed, regardless of export performance.

These measures resulted in substantial growth in industrial production and a significant decrease in unemployment. However, this economic success was coupled with:

• Brutal repression of trade union leaders and leftist parties.
• Strong wage restraint imposed on workers.

This...

The New Deal: Transforming the U.S. Economy

The New Deal was a policy that resonated deeply with the global crisis of the 1930s. U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt implemented these measures, which fundamentally challenged the essential aspects of classical capitalism.

Roosevelt's Rise and Policy Shift

Roosevelt's decisive victory over Herbert Hoover in the November 1932 presidential election marked a radical change in U.S. policy. As one of the most popular presidents in American history, he was re-elected four consecutive times. His success stemmed from his ability to restore public confidence through novel economic and social measures intended to revive production and stimulate demand.

Breaking Economic Liberalism

By intervening directly, the...

Consequences of World War I

The Paris Peace Conference of January 1919, attended by the victorious nations, aimed to establish a new world order. Key figures included Woodrow Wilson (USA), Georges Clemenceau (France), and David Lloyd George (Great Britain). Wilson advocated for the principle of self-determination of nationalities within empires, meaning no territorial restrictions. However, other leaders opposed this, seeking economic and political compensations.

Treaty of Versailles (1919)

The Treaty of Versailles, signed in 1919, imposed several conditions on Germany:

• Territorial concessions: Return of Alsace and Lorraine to France, and Posnania to Poland.
• Withdrawal of settlements.
• Payment of substantial war reparations.
• Abolition of compulsory

Decrees of Nueva Planta and the Regional Government's Purpose

After the death of Charles II without an heir, a succession problem arose, which led to the War of Succession. In this war, two pretenders to the throne faced each other, supported by various European powers. Philip V initiated a reorganization of the state, which implied political and administrative centralization. With the Decree of Nueva Planta, the political institutions of the various foral territories disappeared, except for the Basque Country and Navarre. The civil courts of Aragon were among the few that survived. The Bourbons established a uniform political-administrative structure throughout the centralist model of Castile, which favored monarchical absolutism.

The Esquilache

Spain's Restoration Era: Alfonso XII and Political Stability (1874-1931)

On December 29, 1874, King Alfonso XII of Spain was proclaimed monarch, supported by an interim government led by Antonio Cánovas del Castillo, which garnered widespread approval. This marked the beginning of the Spanish Restoration period, an era characterized by political stability and a new constitutional framework.

The Third Carlist War (1872-1876)

During this period, the Third Carlist War was ongoing. Don Carlos attempted to establish a stable and independent government in Estella. Alfonso XII offered amnesty to all combatants willing to abandon the conflict. Ramón Cabrera, a high-ranking Carlist army commander, accepted the offer, a fact that helped end armed Carlist...

The Emancipation of the American Colonies

Creoles refused to accept the authority of Joseph Bonaparte and created boards that assumed power in their territories. By 1810, many of them declared themselves autonomous from the metropoli. The secessionist regions included:

• Viceroyalty of the Rio de la Plata
• Viceroyalty of New Granada
• Venezuela

The courts were unable to intervene against the independence movement, as they struggled to maintain control over Hispanic territory. The emancipation of the colonies and the creation of republics did not solve all existing problems in Hispanic America:

Challenges of the New Republics

• The Dream of Unity: The vision of the libertadores, especially Bolivar, to achieve a unified and solidary America proved impossible.

International Involvement in the Spanish Civil War

The Spanish Civil War garnered significant international concern. The League of Nations established a Non-Intervention Committee, which prohibited foreign powers from intervening in the war. However, this committee was largely ineffective due to the actions of intervening powers and the prevailing war conditions. Europe at the time was a hotbed of political tension between communism, fascism, and democracy.

Support for the Nationalist Faction

General Franco's Nationalist forces received substantial foreign support:

• Germany: Sent the Condor Legion, comprising highly qualified officers, soldiers, modern aircraft (including naval aviation), and advanced weaponry.
• Italy: Provided aircraft, crucial for

The Restoration of the Monarchy

After the coup by General Pavía and the dissolution of the Cortes in January 1874, a provisional government was established. In theory, the First Spanish Republic was still in force, but in practice, it functioned as a military dictatorship under General Serrano. Serrano concentrated his efforts on quelling the recent Cantonalist outbreaks. Republican opposition was suppressed, and labor organizations were prohibited. A tax increase and new mobilizations successfully halted the Carlist advance.

However, by the end of the year, Serrano's position was already fragile. Support for the Alfonsine cause grew significantly among the middle classes, businessmen, and within the Army. On December 1, Prince Alfonso had signed...

Charles I: Rise and Rebellions

Charles I, son of Archduke Philip the Handsome and Joanna of Castile, and grandson of Ferdinand and Isabella, arrived in Spain around 1516. The courts of Valladolid demanded he learn Castilian. Upon Maximilian's death, Charles was elected Emperor of Germany, a decision unpopular in Castile. To fund his trip to Germany, he requested money from the court, promising changes and vowing not to appoint foreigners to prominent positions in his absence. He failed to keep his promises, leading to discontent and serious disturbances. Toledo initiated the formation of Comunidades, which created their own army to support the rebels. The Santa Junta was formed in 1520. Villalar was defeated in 1521, and its leaders (Padilla,

The Revolutions of 1820 and 1830

During the Restoration, liberals went underground and organized themselves into secret societies. The Masons were the most important group, although there were others like the Italian Carbonari, or the Russian Decembrists. They had influence mainly in cities and hoped the people would join the uprising once initiated. This strategy characterized the revolutionary wave that occurred between 1820 and 1824, and caused an initial, albeit temporary, failure of the Restoration system.

The win in Spain, and shortly afterwards in Portugal, Naples, and Piedmont, opened a short liberal period that was suppressed by absolutist forces. A second revolutionary wave occurred between 1829 and 1839. The revolution began in France...