Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and exercises for History for Baccalaureate

Production Processes in Colonial Venezuela

The Spanish government stimulated the exploitation of the territory in search of metals. In some cases, it imposed this duty on the conquistadors.

Economic Activities in the 16th Century

• Pearl fishing in Cubagua
• Expeditions in search of gold
• Exploitation of mines in the north of the country

Pearls were exhausted very quickly, and mines did not perform well. Therefore, people dedicated themselves to agriculture and animal husbandry. Thus, an agricultural economy became characteristic of the 18th-century colonial period.

Encomiendas

Encomiendas were the allocation of Indigenous people to settlers to work for free. The political goal was to keep those who were conquering the land for the King. From an economic...

Anarchism: Principles and Objectives

Anarchism: A term derived from the Greek an-archos, meaning "without authority." Unlike Marxism, anarchism is not a systematic global theory but a political theory with several variants, depending on the author defending it. However, common ideas unite all anarchist currents. Consequently, their struggle focuses on any manifestation of power. The friction between Marxists and anarchists stems from two fundamental differences: first, anarchists seek to abolish the state, not conquer it for the workers; and second, anarchists reject the formation of workers' parties and their participation in bourgeois politics.

Labor Movement Development: Early 20th Century

The working class was not easily adaptable to the Alfonsine...

Prelude to Conflict

In 1898, Spain and the U.S. started a war for control of Cuba. It was a short war due to American superiority, but it had serious repercussions for Spain's dwindling empire. This crisis favored the emergence of cultural movements that criticized the Restoration period and sought political regeneration.

Cuban War of Independence

Cuba had been a Spanish possession since its discovery by Christopher Columbus. For Spain, it was the "pearl of the Antilles" due to its natural resources and strategic position. From the 19th century, it became the largest producer of sugar.

In the mid-19th century, changes occurred driven by the Creole aristocracy, as the profitability of slavery and the sugar monopoly declined, alongside issues with...

The Liberal Triennium (1820-1823)

In 1820, Fernando VII faced a military uprising led by Colonel Riego. The uprising, initially planned by Fernando Cabezas de San Juan, aimed to restore the liberal Constitution of 1812 ("La Pepa"). Although the plot was discovered, Riego's rebellion gained momentum, forcing Fernando to acknowledge the Constitution.

The King had to rule alongside the liberals, enduring their criticisms. The liberals were divided into two groups: the moderates and the extremists. The moderates favored compromise with the King, while the extremists demanded strict adherence to the Constitution, even considering incapacitating Fernando.

The Liberals faced three major challenges: fiscal ruin, internal division, and the threat of absolutist...

The Crisis of 1898 and Fall of Empire

Spanish Policy in Cuba Before 1898

Between the end of the first war in Cuba in 1878, marked by the Peace of Zanjón, and the beginning of the third war, 17 years passed during which various Spanish governments had the opportunity to introduce some of the reforms demanded by Cuban nationalism. The only measure passed was the abolition of slavery in 1886, but any proposal for autonomy was rejected. There were no major reforms to the colonial status. Tension grew between the metropolis and the colonies due to economic policies. Spain applied a protectionist economic policy that favored Spanish trade through high tariffs, leading to higher prices for products from other countries. The United States was the most...

The Political System During the Spanish Restoration

During the Restoration, the Spanish government was in the hands of two dynastic parties, which alternated in power. This "Turno Pacifico" (peaceful shift) meant that the real opposition never succeeded in obtaining a sufficient number of Members of Parliament to form a government or to have a parliamentary minority sufficient to provide for real opposition. Six elections were won by Conservatives and four by Liberals. The Turno worked with some regularity until the impact of the crisis eroded the political and dynastic parties.

The Conservative and Liberal Parties

The Conservative Party remained in government from 1875 to 1881, when the Liberals were first given access to power. Although Liberal...

The Popular Front (February 1936 - July 1936)

The harsh repression against the *left* during the *right-wing* biennium enabled the union of forces against the conservative government. The election on February 16, 1936, formed two blocks of clear antagonism: the Right and Left.

1. The Elections of February 1936

The parties of the *left* were grouped in the Popular Front, an electoral coalition based on a common program that defended the position of amnesty for those jailed for the 1934 revolution of October, restoration of fees and jobs for those retaliated against for political reasons, and the application of amended legislation that was suspended by the radical coalition succeeded by CEDA (Spanish Confederation of Autonomous Rights). The *right-

Amadeo I's Reign and the Challenges Faced (1870-1873)

On the same day that Amadeo I landed in Spain, his chief backer, General Prim, died. Amadeo was despised by military leaders and aristocrats. During his reign, he faced opposition from the bourgeoisie and workers due to his economic policies, and from peasants and workers due to consumption taxes. Politically, he was opposed by those involved in the Second Carlist War (1872-1876), as well as by Democrats, Liberals, and the Moderate Party. He did, however, have the support of the Liberal Union and the Progressive Party. The King commissioned Serrano to form a government. The King's problems were exacerbated by the great internal divisions within the Unionist and Progressive parties that supported...

Bernat Metge: Life and Court Involvement

Born in Barcelona into a family linked to the court, Bernat Metge was a prominent figure. His father was a pharmacist, and his stepfather was a court official. Metge served as secretary to the last kings of the Catalan comital dynasty, Joan I and Martín I. He became embroiled in scandals and accusations of corruption during the reigns of Peter II and Joan I, which ultimately led to his imprisonment. After the death of Martín I, he withdrew from court life and passed away in Barcelona in 1413.

Key Works of Bernat Metge

• Lo Somni (The Dream): A narrative in verse where the narrator is transported to an allegorical island.
• Valter i Griselda: A Catalan translation of Petrarch's Latin version.
• Humorous Texts:

The Regency of Maria Cristina After Alfonso XII's Death

The early death of Alfonso XII led to the regency of his wife, Maria Cristina. During this period, the Canovas system was consolidated, and there was a significant liberalization of the regime. However, the practice of despotism in politics continued, alongside the recovery of the Republican party, the emergence of nationalist parties, and the organization of the worker's movement.

The regency faced the crisis of 1898 and the wars with the colonies. Foreign policy was characterized by a "recollection" that meant keeping Spain out of alliances and international conflicts. With this policy, the government intended to maintain its colonial empire, comprising territories in Africa, the Pacific...