Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and exercises for History for Baccalaureate

The Cold War: A Global Political Rivalry

The Cold War was a political rivalry between the United States and the Soviet Union and their respective allies that developed after World War II.

The conflict began after the surrender of Nazi Germany in 1945, when the alliance between the United States and Great Britain on one side and the Soviet Union on the other started to fall apart. The Soviet Union began to establish left-wing governments in the countries of Eastern Europe, determined to safeguard against Germany. The Americans and the British worried that Soviet domination in Eastern Europe might be permanent.

The Cold War was solidified by 1947–48, when U.S. aid brought certain Western countries under American influence and the Soviets established...

Colonial Regions of America

• New England: Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, New Hampshire
• Middle: New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware
• Southern: Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia

Freedoms in Colonial America

• Religious Freedom: The right to choose a religion (or no religion) without interference by the government.
• Political Freedom: The right to express one’s views about public matters and the right to support or oppose public policies.
• Economic Freedom/Opportunity: The right of every human to control his or her own labor and property.
• Social Mobility: A person's ability to move to a different social class (higher, middle, lower).

Timeline of the American Revolution

1754: French and Indian War

Fighting between...

Lot of people were killed during the war, but the killings did not stop and a period of official state reprisal began. Those suspected of affiliation with pro-republic ideologies were summarily rounded up and executed. Many people fled the country.

The new Francoist state officially branded Biscay and Gipuzcoa as ‘traitorous’ provinces. This served to legitimize the state terror imposed on the inhabitants of the two provinces. Inhabitants were terrorized for being Basque.

Measures:

• Total suppression of the Basque language
• Only university in the Basque Provinces was closed
• Libraries of social and cultural associations were seized by troops and there was mass burning of books in Basque
• Teaching of the language was prohibited in all schools
• The use

New Technology & Tactics

Tank corps & RFC growing in importance; awareness of importance of these new weapons.

Significant improvements to tank technology & tactics in particular. Tanks employed en masse and with infantry filing behind to ‘mop up’.

Improvement of artillery; ‘Creeping Barrage’ made more effective by better communications & ‘106 fuse’ shells designed to explode horizontally.

Battle of Arras & Failure of Nivelle

Designed as a diversion to Nivelle’s upcoming offensive.

Element of surprise achieved with only short artillery bombardment preceding the attack. Artillery also far more effective.

Infantry approached German trenches through tunnels to minimize casualties.

Efficacy of ‘Combined Arms Tactics’...

The Genesis of Basque Nationalism: Sabino Arana's Vision

The foundational text of the Basque Nationalist Party (PNV) was penned by Sabino Arana, articulating his distinct political ideology. His core tenets included:

• Bizkaia's Catholic Identity: A vision for Bizkaia as a Catholic, Roman Apostolic state.
• Bizkaia's Independence: Advocacy for Bizkaia as an independent state.
• Church-State Relationship: While acknowledging the state's belonging to the church, Arana proposed a separation between state and church, yet believed laws should align with Catholic doctrine.
• Federal Basque State: A unified, independent federal state comprising three Basque provinces, bound by shared race, faith, personality, and customs.

Historical Context: Post-Carlist War Bizkaia

Regime and Conflict in Spain

The conflict affected the regime across Navarre, Basque Country, Catalonia, Aragon, and Valencia. Defending the fueros (local privileges) against the liberal steamroller also gained importance. Finally, note that the movement was essentially rural and was supported only outside of the Holy Alliance (Prussia, Russia, and Austria), which offered only moral support. The Christines or Elizabethans represented the forces defending liberalism and were aided by the introduction of capitalist practices: most of the nobility, the bourgeoisie, and the urban popular classes supported them. They received material support from the Quadruple Alliance: France, Britain, Spain, and Portugal.

1.2 Development of Armed Conflict

The First...

Nature

Nature: This is a fragment of the Constitution of 1869 and therefore it is a historical text of a legal or legislative public nature. It refers to a period in the history of Spain, when the first revolutionary government was chaired by Serrano. It was he who called for elections by universal suffrage for the Constituent Assembly, from which the Constitution of 1869 was adopted.

Ideas

Ideas: The Constitution of 1869 advocated the following principles:

1. Form of State: Democratic monarchy.
2. National Sovereignty: In the line of progressive liberalism.
3. Clear Separation of Powers: Legislative (Parliament), Executive (the King), Judicial (Courts of Justice).
4. Powers of the Monarch: Limited, but still critical (to dissolve the Cortes, free appointment

Reign of Elizabeth II

Features:

• Conservative-Leaning Liberal Monarchy: The 1845 Constitution allowed political participation for an oligarchy of landowners (agricultural, commercial, industrial, and financial bourgeoisie), professionals, and high-level officials. Authoritarian governments, defenders of order, curtailed profound changes and restricted individual freedoms.
• Queen's Trend Towards Conservatism: This trend led to popular discontent and ultimately contributed to the monarchy's downfall.
• Permanent Military Presence: The "myth of military glory" in a nation at constant war led to disrespect for parliament and the belief that the military ensured a strong government and order.
• Bourgeois Parties:
  • Until 1854, the existing parties were the Moderate

The Spanish Civil War: Early Military Operations (1936-1937)

Phase One: The Advance and the "War Columns" (July - Nov 1936)

Military operations began the week following the uprising, giving rise to a phase of the Civil War (GC) called the "War Columns." This period elapsed between the onset of operations and the failure of the rebels in their attempt to take Madrid in early November 1936.

After crossing the Strait, the African troops (commanded by Yagüe) managed to link up with the rebel zone in the north, after eliminating the resistance in Badajoz in September. In late September, Franco took Toledo. By October, the conquest of the capital seemed imminent.

The Defense of Madrid

Due to the imminent threat, general mobilization was ordered on October...

France's Interwar Challenges and Resilience

The French Republic also suffered the impact of the First World War, to an even greater extent than Britain. France had dedicated more human and financial resources to the conflict, leaving the country deeply in debt. France underwent dramatic moments until 1924, then experienced a period of prosperity. However, after the crisis of 1923, it suffered a serious economic and social depression. France successfully prevented the establishment of authoritarianism thanks to the following factors:

• A Mixed Electoral System: Candidates who obtained an absolute majority in each constituency were elected automatically. This system encouraged the formation of coalitions before elections, with the intention of achieving