Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and exercises for History for Baccalaureate

Key Political and Economic Systems

Anarchism

A doctrine that calls for the disappearance of the state and of all power.

Ancien Régime

The economic, social, and political system that came from the decomposition of medieval feudalism and remained in effect in Europe until the Industrial Revolution and the liberal revolutions.

Bolshevik

The revolution maintained that the bourgeoisie had to have a socialist character and be led by the proletariat.

Bourgeoisie

A social class formed especially of traders, artisans, and free people who were not subject to feudal lords.

Concentration Camps

Camps where the population was undernourished and forced into hard labor, where over time they died.

Capitalism

A system in which the instruments of production were privately...

The Transition from Monarchy to Republic in Spain

The transition from monarchy to republic in Spain was initially peaceful. Following the April 1931 elections, Alfonso XIII proclaimed the republic and left the country. However, subsequent reforms antagonized the oligarchy, particularly landowners, leading to civil unrest. The republic was born during a period of economic hardship and amidst the rise of democracy, fascism, and Soviet communism in Europe.

The Provisional Government and the 1931 Constitution

The provisional government implemented educational and military reforms and called for early elections. A coalition of socialist-republicans won the elections by universal suffrage. This government faced conflicts with the CNT (National Confederation...

Primo de Rivera's Dictatorship: An Introduction

At the time of Primo de Rivera's rise, Europe was witnessing the emergence of fascism, with figures like Hitler and Mussolini gaining prominence and influencing political climates across the continent. The preceding Spanish Restoration era had failed to resolve deep-seated political, economic, and social issues. The devastating defeat in the Battle of Annual further exacerbated national discontent.

The 1923 Coup d'État

Miguel Primo de Rivera initiated his coup by occupying official institutions. He then issued a manifesto outlining his reasons for intervention, calling for collaboration against the perceived failures of the Restoration government. Initially, he received support from only two military...

PSOE Foreign Policy

Spain, under the governments of UCD, began the process of joining the community of nations but faced incomplete integration and ambiguities. It was a member of the Council of Europe and a NATO partner, while also being an observer of the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM).

The anti-imperialist and isolationist socialist postulates were abandoned to promote international political possibilities, setting objectives for the European Community, NATO, and relations with the Mediterranean and Latin America.

Negotiations with the European Community

Spain's negotiations with the European Community, ongoing since 1977, had reached an impasse. The Socialist cabinet proposed closer relations with EU countries with which Spain had unfinished business...

The Progressive Biennium (1854-1856) and its Aftermath

During the Progressive Biennium (1854-1856), the second stage of the confiscation took place with Madoz (1855-1867), along with the railroad law. Progressives came to power through a ruling by O'Donnell, "the Vicalvarada," in 1854. This initiated a progressive political reform to displace the moderates from the Constitution of 1845. Espartero developed a new constitution in 1856, but it did not come into force. The last years of Isabella II's reign were under the mandate of the Liberal Union, led by General O'Donnell. This union gathered the more advanced moderates and more moderate liberals (led by Narvaez), marginalizing progressives and Democrats.

In 1866, a political crisis combined with...

The Peace Agreement

• In January 1919, delegations from twenty-seven victorious Allied nations met in Paris to conclude the final agreement of the Great War.
• U.S. President Woodrow Wilson wanted a truly just and lasting peace, arms reduction, and national self-determination for peoples.
• National interests of the victors complicated the deliberations of the Conference of Paris in Versailles.
• David Lloyd George, Prime Minister of Great Britain, had won his election by promising the people heavy penalties for Germany if it lost the war. Therefore, the English people wanted total victory over Germany.
• Georges Clemenceau had vowed revenge against Germany and wanted a demilitarized Germany, enormous damage repairs, and a separate state in the Rhine country

Origins of Basque Nationalism

Basque nationalism emerged from the defense of its historical charters (fueros). This context differed from Catalonia, where a modern middle class had not yet fully developed.

The Abrogation of Fueros and Responses

The abrogation of the provincial laws (fueros) in 1876, which had significant historical impact, led to two distinct responses. Some adapted to the new situation, seeking to understand and leverage its economic benefits, even if it meant integrating with Madrid's economic system. Others, however, maintained traditionalist views, advocating for the full recovery of the charters.

Sabino Arana: Architect of Basque Nationalism

Sabino Arana was a key promoter of Basque nationalism. His objectives included the...

Causes of the Popular Front in the Second Republic

The Popular Front (Frente Popular) was a Spanish left-wing coalition formed in 1936 during the Second Republic. It emerged due to several critical factors:

1. Political Polarization: Spain was divided between left-wing and right-wing groups. The left wanted to fight the rising power of right-wing movements.
2. Social and Political Reforms: The Popular Front aimed to continue reforms started by the first government of the Republic, including land redistribution.
3. Response to 1934 Repression: The coalition wanted to free political prisoners jailed after the Asturian miners' strike.
4. Corruption Scandals: A corruption case called the Estrapero scandal discredited the Radical Party, forcing the dissolution of

The National Convention: A Critical Analysis (1792–1795)

The National Convention, which governed France from September 20, 1792, to October 26, 1795, played a pivotal role during the most tumultuous period of the French Revolution. A critical analysis of its work can be divided into several key aspects:

Constitutional Role and the Republic's Proclamation

The Convention was elected with the primary aim of drafting a new constitution for France after the monarchy's overthrow on August 10, 1792¹. It successfully abolished the monarchy and proclaimed the Republic, reflecting the revolutionary aspirations for a democratic governance structure.

Internal Factionalism: Montagnards vs. Girondins

The Convention was marked by intense factional struggles,...