Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and exercises for History for Baccalaureate

Spain: 19th & Early 20th Century Economic & Social Shifts

Liberal Economic Policies: Spain's Progressive Biennium 1854-56

The Debt Repayment Process Continues

Progressive liberals, as is known, were a political faction focused on fostering economic development and attracting capital investment.

Aside from the 1856 Constitution, which was "non nata" (never enacted), the primary reforms consisted of a series of laws designed to lay the groundwork for the nation's economic modernization.

The Madoz Confiscation Law of 1855

The Madoz Confiscation Law of 1855 was a key component of these reforms. It represented the final component in a mosaic of land structure reforms initiated in the 18th century under Mendizábal and subsequently continued by...

Global Distribution of the Spanish Language

Spanish is the most widely spoken Romance language, with over 400 million speakers primarily concentrated in Spain and the countries of Central and South America.

Focus on Latin American Spanish

Latin American Spanish represents the richest and most geographically varied form of the living language. Latin America is home to the largest number of Spanish speakers.

Origins and Development

The arrival of Europeans in America introduced Spanish to these lands, although the process of Hispanization was slow and complex. The majority of early Spanish settlers came from Andalusia, Extremadura, and the Canary Islands. Consequently, Andalusian Spanish significantly influenced the development of American Spanish....

The Partition of Africa: 1914 Map and Imperialism

This map corresponds to the partition of Africa in 1914. We know that this map belongs to Africa because, in 1914, the continent was divided among various European countries, with the notable exceptions of Ethiopia and Liberia.

As a result of imperialism, Africa was divided into colonies, which in turn were distributed among the various European states. Imperialism is a historical phenomenon that intensified around 1870, driven by the political and economic relations between nations.

The Berlin Conference (1884)

Due to the conflicts between European powers seeking to acquire the largest number of territories, the Conference of Berlin was convened in late 1884. This conference resulted in a new map...

Simón Bolívar's Congress of Panama: The Quest for Continental Unity

The Congress of Panama (sometimes referred to as the Amphictyonic Congress of Panama, recalling the Amphictyonic League of ancient Greece) was a pivotal conference convened by Simón Bolívar. Bolívar issued the call from Lima on December 7, 1824, with the primary objective of achieving the union or confederation of the newly independent Latin American nations, formerly the Spanish viceroyalties in America.

The foundational idea for a great nation encompassing what is now Latin America originated with Francisco de Miranda, who proposed the name Colombia for this eventual confederation. Simón Bolívar strongly supported this concept, notably articulating his vision in the...

Doctrinal Principles of Fascism

• Radical nationalism and collective discontent within Italian society due to the war. Italy sought an empire.
• Anti-parliamentarism and anti-liberalism. It believed that democracy and liberalism weakened the state, advocating for the submission of the individual to the state and the curtailment of individual rights and freedoms.
• Distrust of reason and intellectuals. It appealed to the fanaticism and emotions of the people.
• Concern for social aspects such as work, housing, and security. It was a paternalistic regime.
• Belief in leadership by an absolute ruler, demanding blind obedience. Fascism was supported by three pillars:
  • A strong state
  • A single party
  • The subordination of the individual to the state

Italy's Post-War Social

Military Development of the Conflict

The Spanish Civil War, a brutal conflict, unfolded in three distinct military phases:

Phase 1: July 1936 - Mid-1937

Beginning on July 17, 1936, this phase saw General Franco assume command of the Army of Africa, Spain's best-trained and most prepared military force. These troops crossed the Strait of Gibraltar with German air support to join the insurgents in Andalusia. They advanced towards Madrid but were halted around the capital. This proved a significant setback for the insurgents, who considered Madrid's conquest essential for political, economic, diplomatic, propaganda, and symbolic reasons. During the initial weeks of fighting, it became evident that the rebel army surpassed the Republican Army in organization,...

The Victorious Powers

The Second World War left a world destroyed. Among the winners emerged two superpowers, the United States and the Soviet Union, which initiated a period of hostility known as the Cold War. For more than four decades, the international stage was marked by continuing tension between the two blocs. This strain had a military dimension, visible in the constant upgrading and renewal of weapons, both conventional and nuclear. It also had a political and economic dimension since the two systems were different. It was an ideological confrontation.

The Formation of Blocs

In the world's political reconstruction, decisions were made in meetings at Tehran, Yalta, and Potsdam. The latter two were the most important because they decided...

The 17th Century: Europe's New International Order

The seventeenth century, often called the "Iron Century," saw the advent and consolidation of a new international order in Europe, marked by constant warfare. The cruel Thirty Years' War (1618-1648) and the related Franco-Spanish War, which ended in 1659, are prime examples of this.

The Peace of Westphalia and a New European Order

The Peace of Westphalia in 1648 brought an end to the Thirty Years' War. This treaty marked the triumph of a "horizontal Europe," based on independent monarchies pursuing a diplomatic and military balance, and the defeat of the idea of a "vertical Europe," in which kingdoms would be subordinate to the Emperor and the Pope. Moreover, the Peace of Westphalia signaled the...

The establishment of the Second Republic and the Constitution of 1931

Following Primo de Rivera's resignation in 1930, a growing decline of the monarchy was evident. The king appointed Prime Minister General Berenguer, who was to replace the constitutional system (1876 Constitution), which was unacceptable to the opposition, and save the figure of Alfonso XIII, associated with the dictatorship. On April 12, 1931, municipal elections were held to replace the councils of the dictatorship. Republican and Socialist candidates won in much of the country, demonstrating a rejection of the monarchy. Alfonso XIII relinquished real power and left Spain. On April 14, 1931, the Second Republic was proclaimed, establishing a provisional government headed...

Evolution of Francoist Foreign Policy

This analysis examines the evolution of the international politics of the Franco dictatorship, focusing on how the regime adapted its appearance to meet internal and external needs.

Post-Civil War Alignment

Initially, following the Civil War, the regime maintained close relationships with fascist powers, specifically Hitler's Germany and Mussolini's Italy. This alignment was crucial for Franco's military victory and his subsequent recognition as a leader and savior within Spain.

World War II and the Axis Alliance

During World War II, the regime sought to consolidate an alliance with fascist powers through the 1939 association agreement with the Axis. However, in 1940, Franco decided against entering the war...