Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and exercises for Biology for Other courses

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
Agua, electrolitos, y elementos nutritivos. Para lograr este objetivo se requiere:
Movimiento de los alimentos
Secreción de jugos digestivos
Absorción de productos digeridos,
Circulación de sangre a través de los órganos.
La pared intestinal está formada desde el exterior hacia adentro por las siguientes capas:
Serosa, capa muscular longitudinal, capa muscular circular, submucosa, mucosa.
CONTROL NERVIOSO
Tiene su propio sistema nervioso llamado Sistema Nervioso Entérico, que se encuentra en la pared del tracto digestivo.
Desde el esófago hasta el ano. La función principal es ejercer control sobre:
Movimientos gastrointestinales y secreciones.
1. Plexo mientérico o de Auerbach:
Externo, entre las capas musculares...

Transaminases

Transaminases blood levels are used as indicators to detect pathologies in liver functions.

Transaminases: When the liver is compromised, it releases transaminases into the blood, which can indicate hepatitis.

Mitosis Stages

• Prophase
• Metaphase
• Anaphase
• Telophase

Anaerobic Cell Processes

Anaerobic cell processes can lead to botulism.

Krebs Cycle

Krebs Cycle

Carbohydrates

8 ATP

Pyruvate -------------------------------

• Aerobic: 38 ATP
• Anaerobic: 2 ATP

Cellular respiration and fermentation produce:

• CO₂ + H₂O
• Lactate
• Ethanol + CO₂

Cell Membrane Function

The cell membrane is the barrier that decides what enters the cell. It converts energy, and exchanges are done through membrane receptors.

Energy Metabolism

Metabolism is the physical and chemical process...

Urine Formation

Nephrons are small structures that filter the blood to form urine. Each consists of a glomerulus ...

Nutrients

Nutrients are chemical substances that contain energy and are used by cells to carry out their vital functions.

Eukaryotic Cells

Plasma membrane is an envelope or layer that consists mainly of proteins and lipids.

Cytoplasm is the space between the plasma membrane and the nucleus.

Types: animal and plant.

Mitosis and Cytokinesis

Mitosis is cell division: prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase ...

Cytokinesis

Accessory Glands

Accessory (annex) glands are connected with the digestive tract.

Energy Conversions

• 1 kcal energy value = 1000 calories
• 1 kcal = 4.184 kJ
• 1 kJ = 0.239 kcal

Eating Disorders

Anorexia is a psychiatric disorder characterized...

Requirements for Respiration and Physical Properties

Physical Properties of Air for Respiration

• Temperature: The body temperature is 37°C. Air temperature should be adequate for gas exchange. Breathing through the nose is ideal for regulating blood pressure.
• Atmospheric Air Heating: For normal altitudes (0m-600m), the air is suitable for breathing. At higher altitudes, the lower atmospheric pressure makes gas exchange more difficult, which is why people living there often have more red blood cells.

Air Composition Requirements

• Oxygen Content: The proportion of oxygen in the air should be 21%. If it drops to 10%, gas exchange becomes impossible.
• CO2 Content: Normally, the proportion of CO2 in the air is low. If it exceeds 5%, it becomes impossible

Obj 13: Functions of the Amoeba

Locomotion: It moves by issuing temporary protoplasmic extensions called pseudopodia. It moves in the direction of newly formed pseudopodia; continuous changes in the cell protoplasm produce amoeboidal movement.

Food

Food: Its diet consists of organic particles, algae, bacteria and other protozoa. Microorganisms or particles that come into contact with it are surrounded by pseudopodia and trapped in its digestive vacuole.

Respiration and Excretion

Respiration and excretion: These are simple processes: oxygen dissolved in the surrounding liquid medium is incorporated and carbon dioxide is removed by diffusion.

Reproduction

Reproduction: Reproduction occurs asexually through cell division or bipartition (binary fission)...

Brainstem Alar Plate Sensitivity

General Visceral Sensory (GVS): Cardiorespiratory Nucleus
Medial solitary tract: Receives information from the Vagus (CN X) and Glossopharyngeal (CN IX) nerves. The primary neuron is located in the inferior ganglion of the Vagus nerve.

Special Visceral Sensory (SVS): Taste Nucleus
Lateral to the solitary tract: Receives information from the inferior CN IX and CN X. It is located in the ganglion (No GVS).

General Somatic Sensory (GSS): Trigeminal Nucleus
Three parts: Mesencephalic, Sensory, and Spinal.
Information received:

• Principal part: Proprioceptive information.
• Superior spinal part: Non-discriminative tactile information.
• Caudal spinal part: Thermoanalgesic information.

Special Somatic (SS): Acoustic and Labial

Fisiologia Menstrual e Gravidez

(1) Importância do FSH e do LH no ciclo menstrual feminino: O FSH (hormônio folículo-estimulante) estimula o amadurecimento de um folículo ovariano; esse processo produz estrogênios que caem na corrente sanguínea e promovem o espessamento e crescimento do endométrio. O LH (hormônio luteinizante) estimula a ovulação e o desenvolvimento do corpo lúteo (corpo amarelo), que por sua vez produz progesterona, preparando o endométrio para receber o zigoto.

(2) Sabendo que o mês de julho possui 30 dias e que uma mulher iniciou sua menstruação no dia 23:

• a) Quais são os dias mais férteis em que ela provavelmente se encontra, sabendo que seu ciclo é regular? Resposta: Do dia 1 de julho até o dia 8 de julho.

Portability of Food: The food comes into contact with air, and after a time, alters and changes its appearance, smell, and taste. Rotting meat, fresh fruits, and fermenting bread take on a dark greenish hue. To avoid this, you must save and protect food so that it lasts longer and does not lose its nutritional value. Causes of Deterioration are decomposed foods: environmental microorganisms, bacteria, parasites, food enzymes, chemical reactions, biochemical, biological agents, environmental temperature, humidity, light, oxygen, or simply time. Insect attacks also contribute to these factors, which intervene in the decomposing physical and chemical processes of transformation of the component substances. These processes are manifested by discoloration,...

Structural Chromosomal Alterations

Alterations in the order of genes cause abnormal gamete production, resulting in offspring with gene deficits or excesses. There are two primary types:

• Inversions: The arrangement of genes in a chromosome segment is reversed.
• Translocations: A chromosome segment changes position, moving to another part of the same chromosome, its counterpart, or a different chromosome entirely.

Numerical Genome Mutations

Numerical alterations involve changes in the total number of chromosomes, which consistently produce severe effects. These are categorized into two types:

Euploidy

Euploidy refers to a change in the number of complete chromosomal sets.

• Monoploidy: The presence of only one complete chromosome set (n).
• Polyploidy: The

Organic Molecules: The Building Blocks of Life

The ability of carbon to form long chains gives rise to a variety of molecules, including essential organic compounds.

1. Carbohydrates

Also known as sugars or saccharides, these molecules consist of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. Examples include glucose, lactose, and starch. During combustion, carbohydrates provide significant heat and release water and carbon dioxide. Energy is released slowly through progressive oxidations.

2. Lipids

Lipids are generally insoluble in water and have low density. Their primary functions include:

• Energetic: Provide more energy than carbohydrates.
• Reserve: Stored in adipose tissue.
• Structural: Form cell membranes.
• Protection: Shield against external agents and mechanical