Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and exercises for Sport and physical education for University

Cognitive Theory

Cognitive theory emerged in the United States during the 1960s. It has since expanded into various fields, including therapy and perceptual studies. This school of thought demonstrates that perception is not a photographic reflection of reality. Instead, before we connect with objects, our minds utilize perceptual maps or schemas that anticipate and inform our experiences.

Practical Examples of Mental Schemas

Consider the following scenarios:

• Navigating an unknown space: If you are searching for a book in a dark, unfamiliar house, you rely on a "home schema." You know that if the first room contains a bed, the next might be a bathroom, and the third could be a study, allowing you to navigate effectively.
• Interpreting stimuli: If

Common Features of Plantar Arches

• Alojar soft tissue found in the plantar foot.
• Provide stability during gait, regularizing loads.
• Distribute pressure harmonically.
• Serve to spring muscles and ligaments in order to increase passive tension.
• Adaptation to ground irregularities.
• Contribute to propulsion or internal movements.

Elements of the Medial Plantar Arch

Bony Elements:

• First Metatarsal: Only touches the floor with its head.
• Wedges (Cuneiforms): These are the only bones that transmit pressure directly, but through the muscles and ligaments covering them. Since the first wedge is strongly attached by ligaments to the second and third wedges, these pressures are transmitted to the second and third metatarsals.
• Scaphoid: It is the highest point of the

Proposed Initiation Model and Stages

Animation Stage

• Objective 1: To foster an acceptable level of adhesion to soccer practice through experience and exploration of real game situations in soccer 11 and adapted forms of competition.
• Objective 2: Familiarization with the morpho-functional aspects of the basic game: rules, objectives, principles, and action procedures.

Initiation Stage

• Objective 1: Improving the player-ball relationship.
• Objective 2: Development of the concept of the team game.
• Objective 3: Developing the concept of spontaneous attack.
• Objective 4: Development of the spontaneous defense concept.

Refinement Stage

• Objective 1: Improved player-ball ratio.
• Objective 2: Developing the concept of pre-structured attack.
• Objective 3: Development

Game by Couples: Objective: To motivate and enjoy the practice of volleyball and develop positive attitudes.

Relate to sharing partners and co-targets. Learn about key aspects of the basic rules of volleyball and start in the game. Practice fingers and forearm passes as integral elements in the game. Develop basic aspects of individual tactical skills, improving perception, decision-making, and execution involved in the game. Learn how to act autonomously in sport through integrated and global work.

Contents: Concepts and basic rules, material for the game, application of basic standards of play, and respect towards them. Use tactics such as passing space with fingers and forearms, exploration of different backgrounds, and improving the feel...

Didáctica: Ciencia de la Enseñanza y el Aprendizaje

Definición: La didáctica es la ciencia que estudia los procesos de enseñanza-aprendizaje con el fin de conseguir la formación intelectual y moral del niño y la formación profesional del docente.

Definición propuesta: Es el análisis del proceso que diseña el docente, a través del cual se consigue el aprendizaje en los alumnos.

Etimología: Proviene del griego didaskein, que señala sus diversas acepciones: enseñar, explicar e instruir.

Objeto de estudio

La didáctica aborda cuatro problemas fundamentales:

1. Formación docente: relación del trabajo escolar, métodos de trabajo, eficiencia.
2. Formación del discente: aprendizaje, diferencias individuales, métodos de estudio.
3. Objetivos y contenidos

Motor Behavior in Children and Adolescents

Key Topics

• The question of innate motor programming
• Orthostatic development and gait
• Motor behaviors between 2 and 6 years (nursery and preschool)
• Aquatic motor behaviors
• Implications for motor development
• Refined motor skills from 6 years to adolescence

Objectives

1. Study motor behavior in childhood and adolescence.
2. Interpret the innate nature of motor programming.
3. Explain orthostatic development and walking.
4. Describe motor behaviors between 2 and 6 years.
5. Identify aquatic motor behaviors.
6. Explain implications for motor development.
7. Distinguish refined and elaborate motor skills.

Forssberg (1978) hypothesized that humans possess a set of innate motor programs deployed with varying efficiency, such as the rooting reflex,...

Historical Foundations of Child Development

Key studies include: Shirley (1931), Ozeretsky (1930), Gesell (1947, 1981), and Bayley (1937). Research from 1920-1940 focused on isolated children and biographies, building on earlier work by Pestalozzi (1774), Tiedemann (1787), Shinn (1900), Preyer (1898), and Dearborn (1910).

3.2. European Perspective

3.2.1. J. Ajuriaguerra and Motor Development

Key components include: Infantile Skeletal Organization, Organic Mapping, Automation, and Motor Praxias/Gnosias.

3.2.2. From Holocinesias to Ideocinesias (Azemar)

• 1st Stage (0-5 years): Characterized by trial and error. Movements are predominantly holocinesias, where the effect of actions matters more than the execution. Focuses on locomotion, balance, and object

Predation and Predator Diet

Predation is an interaction in which one organism (the predator) feeds on another (the prey). Similarities and differences with other interactions are often discussed. Some consumers, such as detritivores, do not kill their prey, and it is not always clearly defined whether a consumer is a parasite or a predator. Predators typically kill prey, and they show a strong metabolic dependence on the prey, unlike parasites.

Types of Predators

Predators can be classified in several ways:

• According to prey type: carnivores, herbivores, or omnivores.
• According to hunting strategy: pursuers, filter feeders, deposit feeders, or ambush hunters.
• According to diet variability: monophagous, oligophagous, or polyphagous.
• According to variety

Intellectual Development (Ages 0 to 2 and 2 to 6)

• 1. Thought processes: Sensorimotor thought transitioning to preoperational and concrete-logical thought, enabling children to think and express thoughts.
• 2. Circular reactions: Circular reactions combined with tool use and new learning processes.
• 3. Egocentrism: Physical egocentrism (0-8 months) transitioning to overcoming physical egocentrism and developing psychological egocentrism.
• 4. Language acquisition: Language upgrading, vocabulary expansion, and grammar development.
• 5. Play progression: Sensorimotor play transitioning to symbolic play, and later to sociodramatic play.
• 6. Animism and magic: Animistic and magical thinking accompanied by object permanence, evolving into advanced animistic and

Introduction

Nowadays, athletes use drugs to increase their potential when it comes to showing their skills. However, these substances bring significant ethical and practical concerns.

Should Performance Enhancing Drugs (Such as Steroids) Be Accepted in Sports?

Arguments For Acceptance (Pro)

Pro 1

If steroid use for professional athletes is permitted, they will be able to legally obtain physical enhancement drugs which have been regulated, and are therefore possibly safe to use.

Pro 2

The important point is that as long as the participants are grown adults, making informed choices about the possible consequences, there should be no restriction on what sportsmen and women can do. We don't stop grown men punching each other senseless in the ring or...