Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and exercises for Social sciences for Baccalaureate

Meaning and Definitions of Sociology

Etymological: From Latin socius (companion/society) and Greek logos (study/science) – literally, the "science of society".

Scientific Study: It is a systematic, empirical study of human society, social behavior, patterns, and relationships, using scientific methods to understand social phenomena, unlike mere philosophical speculation.

Key Focus Areas: Social structure, social institutions (family, education, religion), social interaction, culture, and the impact of society on individual behavior.

Definitions of Sociology

• Auguste Comte (Father of Sociology): Defined sociology as the science of social phenomena, aiming to discover the laws governing society.
• M. Ginsberg: "Sociology is the study of human interactions

Environmental Protection and Sustainability

The environment is the foundation of all life on Earth. It includes air, water, soil, plants, animals, and the natural systems that support them. In recent decades, rapid industrialization, population growth, and urbanization have placed tremendous pressure on the environment. Problems such as air pollution, deforestation, climate change, and loss of biodiversity have become serious global concerns. These issues threaten the health and well-being of all living beings, including humans.

Collective Action for a Cleaner Planet

Protecting the environment requires collective effort. Governments must enforce strict laws to reduce pollution and promote sustainable development. Industries should adopt eco-friendly...

Crossword Definitions

Down:

1. Subsidiarity: Principle according to which the state intervenes only in areas where individuals or private initiative cannot act.
2. Citizenship: The position or status of being a citizen.
3. Welfare State: Government model that seeks to guarantee social rights such as health, education.
4. Liberalism: A political and economic current that promotes the free market.

Across:

2. Crisis: Period of financial instability, marked by devaluations.
3. Social Justice: Principle that seeks to guarantee equality and equity.
4. Development Plan: Set of strategies implemented by the state.
5. Solidarity: Value that encourages cooperation between citizens.

Key Historical Concepts & Events

• During the period known as Maximato, Plutarco Elías Calles exercised

Introduction to the Indian Constitution's Basic Structure

The Indian Constitution, adopted shortly after independence, is the supreme law of India. It establishes the framework for a democratic republic, defining the rights and responsibilities of citizens and outlining the structure of the government.

Key Components of the Indian Constitutional Framework

The framework of the Constitution includes several essential elements:

• Fundamental Rights

  These rights are inherent to every citizen and cannot be arbitrarily taken away. They include crucial liberties such as freedom of speech, equality before the law, and the right to life.

• Fundamental Duties

  These duties are considered binding upon every citizen and include responsibilities such as paying taxes,

The Second International

The Second International was founded in Paris and exclusively incorporated socialist parties. Its core principles included:

• The extension of democracy.
• Access to power through peaceful means.
• Regulation of the labour market.
• The end of gender discrimination and other inequalities.

It established iconic symbols of the workers' movement, such as the 1st of May as International Workers' Day, in memory of those arrested and killed in Chicago during a demonstration.

The Great Socialist Schism

Internal debates triggered the breakup of the Second International, leading to the two major currents of 20th-century socialism:

• Social Democracy (Reformist): In Germany, a sector of the SPD led by Eduard Bernstein advocated for a parliamentary

Escalation and Revolutionary Measures

When Parisian militants expelled the Girondins, they “regenerated” their own sectional assemblies by purging local moderates. Radicals, including Jacques-René Hébert and Pierre-Gaspard Chaumette, subsequently took control of the Paris Commune. On September 5, 1793, they organized a mass demonstration, urging the National Convention to ensure affordable food prices and to implement terror as a reality.

In response, the Convention, in conjunction with the Committee of Public Safety, took decisive actions to control the popular movement. They proclaimed the necessity of terror against the Revolution's enemies, addressed economic crimes, and decreed a system known as the Maximum (price and wage control)...

Historical Context of the 1876 Constitution

The Spanish Constitution of 1876 is a fundamental legal document addressed to all citizens, containing the primary articles that governed the nation for decades. It was promulgated in 1876 by the Spanish Cortes and King Alfonso XII.

The Road to the Bourbon Restoration

In 1868, Queen Isabella II was expelled from the throne following the triumph of the Gloriosa Revolution, marking the beginning of the Six-Year Revolution (Sexenio Democrático). This period featured a provisional government and a democratic monarchy under Amadeo of Savoy. However, his reign was short-lived, leading to the proclamation of the First Spanish Republic.

Due to internal conflicts and instability, the government eventually transitioned...

United Nations Sustainable Development Goals

1. No Poverty
2. Zero Hunger
3. Good Health and Well-being
4. Quality Education
5. Gender Equality
6. Clean Water and Sanitation
7. Affordable and Clean Energy
8. Decent Work and Economic Growth
9. Industry, Innovation, and Infrastructure
10. Reduced Inequalities
11. Sustainable Cities and Communities
12. Responsible Consumption and Production
13. Climate Action
14. Life Below Water
15. Life on Land
16. Peace, Justice, and Strong Institutions
17. Partnerships for the Goals

Understanding Race and Human Diversity

Key Concepts of Race

• Race is a modern idea with no genetic basis.
• Human subspecies do not exist.
• Skin color is only skin deep.
• Variation exists within so-called races, not primarily between them.
• Slavery predates the concept of race.
• Race and freedom were born together, with

Thomas Jefferson's Presidency (1800-1808)

Judiciary Act of 1801

This act created new judgeships, 16 federal courts, and significantly increased the number of attorneys, clerks, and marshals.

The Marshall Court Era

John Marshall was named Chief Justice by the Judiciary Act of 1801. During his 34-year term, he appointed Federalists to all new judicial positions, including 42 new justices for Washington D.C.

Marbury v. Madison (1803)

This was the first landmark Supreme Court case heard by Chief Justice Marshall. The ruling established the principle of judicial review, though Madison ultimately prevailed in the specific case.

The Louisiana Purchase (1803)

In 1803, Napoleon Bonaparte, unable to maintain control over his North American territories, sold...

Globalization and Globalism

Globalization is the increasing interconnectedness of people across countries, while globalism refers to the fluctuating level and extent of these connections. Globalism, therefore, is a key component of globalization, constantly evolving based on the specific type of linkage. The authors identify four distinct forms of globalism:

Economic Globalism

This involves international trade, the flow of jobs across borders (e.g., scientists conducting research abroad or relocated customer service centers), and international investment.

Military Globalism

Countries with limited military capabilities form alliances with stronger military powers. This often involves establishing military bases or defense agreements.

Environmental