Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Other foreign languages

This section provides practical examples of common Spanish grammatical structures, including expressions of wishes, conditional clauses, and passive voice constructions. Each example is presented with its English translation to aid understanding.

Expressing Wishes and Regrets (Ojalá)

• Ojalá no me hubiera casado cuando tenía dieciocho años. I wish I hadn't got married when I was eighteen years old.
• Pat está desempleada desde hace tres meses. Ojalá encuentre un trabajo. Pat has been unemployed for three months. I wish she would find a job.
• Mi mujer quiere que tome clases de baile. Ojalá me gustara bailar. My wife wants me to take dance lessons. I wish I liked dancing.
• Estoy interesado en el deporte desde que era un chico, pero soy tan torpe.

Formal Letter Writing

Template for Proposing Changes

Dear Sir/Madam,

The reason for this letter is to present my opinion about... and also to propose additional changes. To begin with... and I would take up more... So I suggest...

Clarifying Points in a Published Report

Dear Sir/Madam,

I am writing with regard to your article which appeared... I should like to make it clear to... the comments made do not apply to... Firstly, the impression given of... is certainly not true of... Moreover, the reason why... In addition, I must also disagree with the suggestion that... Indeed, I would like to take this opportunity to... I very much hope you will print... I look forward to seeing you. Yours faithfully.

Expressing Dissatisfaction to an Editor

Dear Editor,

Essay Structure and Useful Phrases

Introduction

Nowadays, in our society...

Development

1. Examples
2. Data: As recent surveys show...
3. Advantages and Disadvantages:
   • On the one hand, on the positive side...
   • On the other hand, on the negative side...

   I can show some advantages such as: / But also there are some disadvantages such as:

Connectors:

• And (y): In addition (además), Besides (además de), Apart from.
• Also (también): Too (demasiado, también - at the end), as well as (así como).
• But (pero): However (sin embargo).
• Because (porque): Due to (debido a) + noun.

Conclusion

To conclude (para concluir). In conclusion (en conclusión). According to what was said before (de acuerdo con lo dicho anteriormente).

Personal Opinion

As far as (en cuanto a) I'm concerned...

Expressing Preference

• Lo que más me gusta… – What I like the most
• Lo que menos me gusta… – What I like the least
• Mi comida favorita… – My favorite food
• Mi comida preferida… – My preferred / favorite food

Expressing Frequency

• Una vez – One time
• Entre… y… – Between … and …
• Más de… – More than
• Menos de… – Less than
• Al día – Per day
• A la semana – Per week
• Al mes – Per month
• Al año – Per year
• Nunca – Never

Conjugating the Verb Querer (To Want)

Asking for Information in a Restaurant

• ¿Qué es…? – What is…?
• ¿Qué lleva…? – What does it contain? / What is in it?
• ¿Cómo preparan

Colonialisme (segles XV-XVI)

El colonialisme comença a Portugal i Castella.

Causes

• Econòmiques: nous territoris, més matèries primeres i mercats exteriors.
• Demogràfiques: una quantitat insostenible de població que fa augmentar l'emigració.
• Polític-militars: més colònies = més prestigi.
• Geoestratègiques, religioses i culturals…

Tipus de colònies

• De explotació
• De població
• Protectorats

Àfrica

A principis del segle XIX, els europeus disposaven a Àfrica de factories costaneres. A la meitat del segle, van recórrer Àfrica i es van endinsar pels rius Níger i Nil i per l'Àfrica central. El 1870, Gran Bretanya al nord amb el sud i França l'est-oest, i es van enfrontar. S'hi va afegir Bèlgica en l'exploració del Congo. Els alemanys es van

English Verb Tenses: Active and Passive Voice

Common English Phrasal Verbs

• Come across: Descubrir (Discover)
• Bring up: Mencionar / Educar (Mention / Raise)
• Come along: Acompañar a alguien (Accompany someone)

Fundamentals of Logic and Reasoning

What is Logic?

Logic is the philosophical discipline that studies the correctness or validity of our reasoning.

The Role of Language in Argumentation

By means of language, we perform various actions: begging someone to lend us money, asking for directions, describing our home, or even, if you have sufficient authority, issuing a command like throwing someone in jail.

Structure of Reasoning, Arguments, and Inferences

A valid argument or inference consists of two main components:

1. Premises: A set of statements expressing the input data or evidence.
2. Conclusion: The final statement expressing new information obtained directly from the premises.

Example of Deductive Reasoning

• Premise 1: The cheese thief is a cat or a mouse.

English Verb Tenses

Present Tenses

• Present Simple: Subject + verb + complement.
• Present Continuous: Used for actions happening now. Structure: Subject + to be + verb + -ing + complement.
• Present Perfect: Past actions with present relevance. Structure: Subject + have/has + past participle + complement.
• Present Perfect Continuous: Actions starting in the past that continue to the present. Structure: Subject + have/has + been + verb + -ing + complement.

Past Tenses

• Past Simple: Subject + verb (past) + complement.
• Past Continuous: Actions occurring at a specific moment in the past. Structure: Subject + to be (was/were) + verb + -ing + complement.
• Past Perfect: Action occurring before another past action. Structure: Subject + had + past participle + complement.

UNIT 3

• 1. We thank you for your letter of...
  - Le damos las gracias por su carta del...
• 2. In reply to your letter of...
  - En contestación a su carta del...
• 3. Thank you for your letter of...
  - Le damos las gracias por su carta de...
• 4. With reference to your letter of...
  - En referencia a su carta de...
• 5. Further to...
  - En referencia a...
• 6. We are pleased to enclose...
  - Estamos encantados de adjuntarle...
• 7. We have pleasure in enclosing...
  - Tenemos el placer de adjuntarle...
• 8. Our prices are subject to a 5% discount for cash...
  - Nuestros precios están sujetos a un 5% de descuento por pago en efectivo.
• 9. We have sent today by separate post...
  - Le hemos enviado hoy por correo aparte...
• 10. We require payment by banker's draft.
  - Necesitamos el pago

English Conditional Sentences

• 1st Conditional (Realidad): If/Unless + Subject + Present Simple + Complement, Subject + Future Will + Complement.
• 2nd Conditional (Imaginación): If + Subject + Past Simple + Complement, Subject + Conditional (Would) + Complement.
• 3rd Conditional (Imposible): If + Subject + Past Perfect + Complement, Subject + Perfect Conditional (Would Have) + Complement.

Reported Speech (Estilo Indirecto)

Sentence Types

• Enunciativas: Subject + said + that...
• Commands (Tell/Mandar): Subject + told + pronoun + (not) + to + infinitive + Complement.
• Requests: Same as commands, but replace told with asked.

Reporting Verbs

• Ordered (mandar), Invited (invitar), Convinced (convencer): Verb + pronoun + to + infinitive + Complement.
• Refused (rechazar/