Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Medicine and health sciences

Type 1 Diabetes

Type 1 diabetes typically appears in children and young adults. It often manifests suddenly in individuals who are not overweight. People with Type 1 diabetes do not produce insulin.

It can be genetic in origin due to an autoimmune problem, where the immune system mistakenly attacks and destroys its own insulin-producing cells.

Symptoms:

• Excessive thirst (polydipsia)
• Constant hunger (polyphagia)
• Frequent urination (polyuria)
• Vision problems

Treatment involves regulating blood glucose levels. The pancreas produces insulin to reduce glucose concentrations and glucagon to enhance them. A glucometer is used to measure glucose levels. Doctors may perform a glucose tolerance test to diagnose diabetes. Insulin can be injected using an insulin...

Clinical History

1. Interrogatorio (History Taking)

1. General information
2. Reason for consultation
3. Personal history (and physiological and pathological antecedents)
4. Family history (genetic diseases, transmissible diseases)
5. Current disease (symptoms, type, location, onset, when, evolution, semiology)

Physical Examination

Physical examination performed by the health professional on the patient.

General Inspection

1. General information (apparent age, sex, nutrition, constitution)
2. Anatomical and static findings (skeletal alterations, skin coloring)
3. Functional findings (respiratory movements, heartbeats, convulsions, tremors)

Elementary Skin Lesions

1. Primary lesions: macules, papules, vesicles, pustules, hives (wheals), nodules
2. Secondary lesions: scabs, scales, ulcers,

The Vocalic Experiment: Verse in A

Plasma work words do it, catches bullets, sal Machakos. Gusts up to tear each room, bark. Saca las garras, throat, weapons, palmas. The steps of fame will never take patán allares peace. Faces bitter, evil long haul will pay, dredges. Andare a shit, expensive sabrán saladas laughter.

After so many traps, after many false jarana, alabanzas deployed. After many, many souls to reach calm, transfer for little birds. Nach send many ghosts, Sahara. Cheap talk gag, drilling to paragraphs, flaca, end badly. Masacre stops so bad to win battles, for remote caught up kicks, give a cunning la talla. You give the campaign for comrades, will nothing to herd for chanta, sing ballads to please the home, tired mass, anda pa'

Helminths: Parasitic Worms

Helminths are group-living and parasitic species. They include flatworms (Platyhelminthes) and roundworms (Nematelminthes), collectively known as worms.

• Acanthocephala: thorny-headed worms
• Schistosomiasis: caused by Schistosoma mansoni

Morphology: male, female and egg.

Cycle:

Habitat:

Tapeworms and Cysticercosis

Cysticercosis is caused by T. solium and T. saginata.

• The presence of changes in the skin may be caused by the adult form of T. solium and T. saginata in the bowel.
• Cysticercosis more commonly affects any tissue, and can cause brain involvement, which is more common with T. solium.
• The oncosphere is the larva contained inside the egg.

Morphology: T. saginata and T. solium have a flattened, ribbon-shaped body divided into...

Cholinergic Drugs

Muscarinic agonists: Acetylcholine, Muscarine, Carbachol

Muscarinic antagonists: Atropine, Ipratropium, Tiotropium

Anti-AChE: Tacrine, Donepezil (noncovalent)

Physostigmine, Neostigmine, Rivastigmine (reversible)

Nicotinic Acetylcholine Receptors

Neuromuscular blockers (nondepolarizing): Pancuronium, Atracurium, Mivacurium

Depolarizing: Decamethonium, Succinylcholine

Adrenergic and Serotonergic Drugs

Catecholamines: Adrenaline (AD), Noradrenaline (NA), Dopamine (DA)

Beta agonists: Dobutamine, Isoproterenol, Albuterol

Sympathomimetics: Amphetamine, Methamphetamine, Ephedrine

5-HT agonists: Rizatriptan, Sumatriptan, Naratriptan

5-HT antagonists: Ketanserin, Methysergide, Cyproheptadine

General Anesthetics

Inhalational: Isoflurane, Enflurane,...

Diagnostic Tests and Procedures

Scanning and Recording (Tests Diagnosed Tics)

Clinical History is the initial interview with the doctor, where a thorough and systematic interrogation is conducted about the patient's history, current state, and finally completed with a physical exam and follow-up on their evolution.

All information is documented to form the clinical history, including surgical operations and procedures performed.

The clinical history comprises the following parts:

1. Interrogation or Amnesis
2. Physical Examination
3. Tracking the Evolution of the Patient

1. Interrogation (Amnesis)

Personal History (of the patient): Name, age, marital status, address, etc.

Family History (Clinical): Information about relatives, including their health status, diseases,...

Antisepsis, Asepsis and Disinfection: Key Concepts

Antisepsis: lowers organic surface microbial load; it is non-toxic to skin and mucosa and inhibits bacterial growth without preserving the sterility of the environment. Asepsis: the absence of pathogenic microorganisms in materials and environments.

Disinfection: destruction of pathogenic microorganisms on inorganic materials. Sterilization: destruction or elimination of all forms of microbial life, including their spores.

Methods of Sterilization

Physical methods: moist heat, dry heat, filtration and radiation.

Chemical methods: sterilization with gaseous agents (organic and inorganic).

• Protein coagulation: proteins precipitate and enzymatic activity stops, so cells die.
• Oxidation of free sulfhydryl

Surgical Treatment: An Overview

The term surgical treatment, or surgery, is very broad. It can be classified into major surgery and minor surgery:

• Major surgery involves significant procedures, such as an appendectomy or cardiac intervention. Due to its importance and complexity, it can lead to serious post-operative complications. Patients often need to remain in the hospital for some time to be monitored and treated by medical personnel.
• Minor surgery includes simpler, short-duration interventions performed on superficial and accessible tissues, for example, wart removal. Generally, the number of complications is low.

Today, thanks to significant progress in surgery, some surgical procedures that traditionally required hospitalization can now...

Introduction to Viruses

Viruses are acellular organisms that exist at a level of organization below the cell. To live and multiply, they must parasitize a host cell. They present two distinct phases: the extracellular and the intracellular phase.

Extracellular and Intracellular Phases

In the extracellular phase, viruses are in a latent state and are known as virions. They consist of a nucleic acid enveloped by a protein structure. In the intracellular phase, the virus exists solely as nucleic acid. Animal viruses can contain either DNA or RNA, whereas plant viruses typically carry RNA. Viruses that infect bacteria, known as bacteriophages, can contain either DNA or RNA.

Viral Morphology and Structure

Viruses are classified by the shape of their...

Hormones: Classification and Mechanism of Action

Lipid-soluble: steroids: modification of the cholesterol molecule.
Thyroid: iodination of two molecules linked to tyrosine (T3, T4).

Water-soluble: Amines: decarboxylation of amino acids.
Protein:

Action

Lipid-soluble: the hormone enters the cell, binds to receptors in the cytosol and nucleus, and modifies DNA, which is transcribed into mRNA and translated into active cell proteins.

Water-soluble: the hormone joins a membrane receptor (first messenger), which activates a G protein that in turn activates adenylate cyclase (ATP to cAMP; second messenger). cAMP activates protein kinases, which phosphorylate enzymes that carry out functions.

Hypothalamus

The hypothalamus is an endocrine gland that also receives...