Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and exercises for History for Secondary education

Key Causes of the Spanish Civil War

The origins of the Spanish Civil War can be attributed to three primary factors:

• Ideological Antagonism: Deep divisions between rightist and leftist democratic factions were already visible during the monarchy.
• Class Struggle: This conflict possessed a significant socio-economic dimension. Landowners backed the anti-Republican side to defend their interests, while urban wage earners and laborers mobilized for the Republic to pursue an egalitarian revolution.
• Religious Conflict: Catholics supported the war to defend their convictions against those who sought to diminish the influence of the Church.

The International Conflict

Foreign intervention decisively conditioned the duration, progress, and outcome of the Spanish...

The Forging of Labor

Workers felt the need to create their own organizations, independent of bourgeois groups. Stable clusters began to form, formulating alternatives to capitalist society: cooperative versus competitive individualism versus collectivism. The first type of labor organization was the Friendly Societies, companies acting as resistance. They helped workers in cases of illness or unemployment and organized the first strikes by charging fees. These societies extended from 1820. Their actions led to the abolition of the Combination Acts and the consolidation of the right of association.

Soon, the need arose to coordinate all unions within a country. Several attempts were made, such as the creation of the National Association for the...

French Revolution Key Questions

• c. What did the Third Estate of the States General claim?

  It claimed voting by head (per individual) rather than by order (per estate), meaning each representative would have one vote.

• d. When was the National Assembly formed? What was its main goal?

  It was formed on June 17, 1789. Its main goal was established by the Tennis Court Oath: not to disband until a constitution for France was drafted.

• e. Who were the sans-culottes?

  The sans-culottes were the common people of the lower classes in late 18th-century France, many of whom became radical and militant partisans of the French Revolution. They were often associated with radical clubs like the Jacobins.

• f. Who were the Girondins and the Jacobins?

  The Girondins were

Franklin D. Roosevelt and the New Deal

In 1932, during one of the worst years of the Great Depression, Democrat Franklin D. Roosevelt won the presidential election. He proposed the New Deal, a comprehensive program designed to revitalize the economy through a series of economic and social reforms.

Key economic measures included:

• Assistance to businesses facing difficulties.
• Creation of public enterprises.
• Measures to control agricultural overproduction, including the destruction of agricultural stocks to stabilize prices.

The state also exerted control over banks, compelling them to provide low-interest loans. This encouraged employers to expand their businesses and create new jobs. These economic reforms were complemented by significant social reforms...

Key Terms of Francoist Spain

Understanding the vocabulary of Francoist Spain is essential for grasping the complexities of this historical period. Here are some key terms:

The Blue Division

Spanish military union volunteers who fought on the Russian front during World War II, between 1941 and 1944.

The National Institute of Industry

Established in the postwar period to promote industrial development.

Ration Cards

Cards that were distributed among the population to buy staples.

Black Market

Speculators were selling products illegally at excessively high prices, often double or triple the official market price.

Opus Dei

An institution of the Catholic Church founded by José María Escrivá in 1941. It consists of religious and secular members, and its main...

The Franco Regime: System and Phases

System Features and Bases

Franco's political system was configured as a system characterized by dictatorial concentration of power and suppression of freedoms.

Franco Basics

After the Civil War in April 1939, the victors, led by Francisco Franco, established a dictatorial regime with the following characteristics:

• There was no single constitution, but a set of spread laws: the Fundamental Laws.
• There was a single union: the Trade Union Organization.
• There was only one party: the Falange or Movimiento Nacional.

Franco controlled all branches. The Franco regime was characterized by a conservative and anti-democratic ideology.

Stages of the Franco Dictatorship

• Between 1939 and 1949: International isolation, fall in economic

Alfonso XIII and the Canovist System (1902-1923)

During the beginning of the twentieth century in Spain, the Restoration Canovist system that had existed since 1876 survived. However, the lack of selflessness and the inefficiency of the King, combined with the increasing problems in the country—such as the revival of regionalism, the increase of labor and social unrest, the war in Morocco, and the army's interest in political leadership—led a general to seize power through a coup in 1923.

Dictatorship of General Miguel Primo de Rivera (1923-1931)

Primo de Rivera managed to solve some of the country's problems, but only momentarily and with a heavy hand. However, the impact of the economic crisis, the loss of popular support, the declining...

The Conservative Biennium and the Popular Front (1933-1936)

Right-Wing Governments

The suppression of the uprising of Casas Viejas, the site of a massacre of peasants by the Civil Guard, threw the government into crisis. Manuel Azaña submitted his resignation as premier, and President Alcalá Zamora dissolved the Parliament and called new elections for November 1933.

The elections were won by the right-wing parties (40% of the votes) and the center (21%). Alejandro Lerroux, of the Radical Party, was elected president with the parliamentary support of the CEDA.

The new government initiated a process of dismantling the reforms of the previous biennium: it stalled land reform, changed religious policies, leading to a rapprochement with the Vatican,...

Spanish Bourbon Restoration — Terms and Notes

Liberal Monarchy

Liberal monarchy: With the reign of Isabel II, the liberal monarchy was introduced in Spain. It was characterized by the existence of a constitution, separation of powers, and the coexistence of two political parties — both liberal (Moderate and Progressive).

Conservative Party

Conservative Party: It was formed by heirs of the Moderates; its leader was Antonio Cánovas del Castillo.

Restoration

Restoration: With the arrival in Spain of Alfonso XII, the period known as the Restoration began. It is so called because of the return of the monarchy and the Bourbon dynasty. It was a time of gradual change and relative political stability that lasted until 1931.

Progressive Party

Progressive

The Roman Legions

No ancient civilization possessed an army as numerous, disciplined, well-armed, and skilled in tactical warfare as the Roman army. It was this military force that enabled Rome to conquer vast territories and establish a sprawling empire. The Roman army was composed of various types of troops:

• Hastati: Younger, inexperienced soldiers who occupied the front ranks. They were equipped with spears, swords, shields, and armor.
• Principes: Comprised the second line of attack; these groups were more experienced and carried the same weaponry as the Hastati.
• Triarii: The third line of troops, who only intervened if the battle was going poorly.
• Velites: Occupied the rear positions. They wore no armor, carried round shields, and were equipped