Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and exercises for History for Secondary education

Reconstruction Without Reconciliation

John Wilkes Booth's Decisive Bullet

Abraham Lincoln was assassinated while attending a play at the theater.

A Country in Ruins

President Andrew Johnson, a Democrat, struggled to unify the nation. While he favored abolition, he lacked Lincoln's determination in enforcing federal legislation.

Resistance to Federal Authority

Many former rebels refused to seek pardons, serving as a clear example of resistance against the federal government.

The Spirit of Reconciliation

Lincoln's 2nd inaugural address emphasized healing, contingent upon the ratification of the 13th Amendment.

Initial Plans for Reconstruction

• General Amnesty: Offered to those who took an oath of loyalty to the USA and pledged to obey federal laws regarding

The Election of 1960

JFK was an expert at public speaking; he projected the image of the most self-confident leader. Television was one of his most effective weapons, and through it, the Kennedy/Camelot myth was born.

A New Era Inaugurated

In his address, we observe not a victory of party, but a celebration of freedom—symbolizing an end, as well as a beginning—signifying renewal, as well as change.

"Let the word go forth from this time and place, to friend and foe alike, that the torch has been passed to a new generation of Americans—born in this century, tempered by war, disciplined by a hard and bitter peace, proud of our ancient heritage—and unwilling to witness or permit the slow undoing of those human rights to which this Nation has

Battle of the Marne

Germany attempted to execute the Schlieffen Plan, which aimed to quickly defeat France and then attack Russia. However, the French successfully halted the German advance at the Battle of the Marne.

Gallipoli Campaign

The British attempted to seize the Dardanelles Strait in order to isolate Turkey, but they were defeated in Gallipoli (1915-1916).

Russian Withdrawal from World War I

The Russian front collapsed due to the Bolshevik Revolution, which caused them to withdraw from the conflict.

United States Enters World War I

When the U.S.A. joined the war on the side of the Allies, it provided significant amounts of supplies and soldiers, which enabled the Allies to win the war.

Treaty of Brest-Litovsk

The Germans made peace with Russia...

The Weimar Republic's Fragility

Early Challenges and Opposition

The provisional government repressed the Spartacist Revolt in 1919, led by Karl Liebknecht and Rosa Luxemburg, which aimed to impose a communist regime. A constituent assembly then passed a constitution in the city of Weimar, establishing Germany as a democratic republic. This new democracy faced significant opposition from extremist groups:

• The extreme left believed the regime was too moderate.
• The extreme right believed the new regime had betrayed Germany by accepting the Treaty of Versailles.

Adolf Hitler and the Nazi Party

Party Formation and Early Actions

Adolf Hitler joined the German Workers' Party (DAP), which later became the National Socialist German Workers' Party (NSDAP)....

Causes of the Second World War

• Failure of the Treaty of Versailles: It was too harsh on Germany. Intended as a peace treaty, its only achievement was fostering revenge and resentment, which Hitler used to justify his rise to power.
• Failure of the League of Nations: It failed to maintain world peace. Its main leaders were guided by self-interest, and the USA did not participate.
• Hitler's Expansionist Plan: Aggressive territorial ambitions.
• Policy of Appeasement: Britain and France viewed the treaty as an unfair pact. Instead of setting limits, they chose to appease Hitler, making him stronger.
• Wall Street Crash: The economic crisis caused global instability, unemployment, and inflation, which facilitated the rise of nationalist regimes and Hitler'

The Influence of the EU

The European Union is an economic world power and is ranked first in international commerce.

It is allied to the USA, even though it has criticized some of its military interventions. It has regularly participated in UN peace missions.

Europe’s international political influence is weakened because its members are sometimes in disagreement. A common international policy would help to solve this problem.

Russia and the Old Communist Bloc

The Development of the Russian Federation

After the dissolution of the USSR, Russia became a regional power. However, it retained most of its nuclear weapons, remained a permanent member of the UN Security Council, and was accepted in international organizations (e.g., the Group of Eight (

Understanding the Cortes and Royal Authority

The Cortes were assemblies that participated in royal deliberations, often convened due to the crown's financial needs. Some monarchs ignored or ceased convoking them, leading to absolutism, a system where rulers centralized political power and territorial control.

Forms of Monarchy and Governance

• Authoritarian Monarchy: The initial step toward absolutism; Charles I is a primary example.
• Absolutism: Exemplified by Louis XIV, who centralized all three branches of power.
• Parliamentary Monarchy: Established in 17th-century England, where Parliament limited royal power and held legislative authority.

Historical Justifications of Power

• Catholic Kings: Expanded power across the peninsula to increase their authority.

Social and Political Dynamics in Restoration Spain

The Workers' Movement

The workers’ movement gained strength after the Constitution of 1876 recognized the freedom of association. Anarchism gained support among Catalan factory workers and Andalusian peasants. The socialists founded the trade union UGT in 1888, which was strongest in Madrid, Asturias, and the Basque Country.

Regionalism and Nationalism

Regionalism and nationalism originated as a reaction against the centralist policies of the Restoration.

• Catalan Nationalists: Sought autonomy for Catalonia and demanded Catalan be decreed the official language of Catalonia (Bases of Manresa, 1892).
• Basque Nationalists: Defended their fueros (traditional rights) and traditions.
• Galician Nationalists:

The Contemporary Age: A Historical Period

It started in 1789 with the French Revolution. It still continues nowadays.

We will divide the Contemporary Age in two parts to understand better the changes that happened during this stage of history: the 19th century and the 20th and 21st centuries.

The World in the 19th Century

The main events that happened in the 19th century in the world were:

• The French Revolution, which led to a new form of government called liberalism.
• The Industrial Revolution, which is the name given to the technical and economic changes that happened during this century.
• The changes in society that the two previous events caused: the creation of two new social classes: middle class and workers.

Spain in the 19th Century

The main events...

The Reign of Charles IV (1788–1808)

• Charles III died, and Charles IV inherited the throne, marking the beginning of a period influenced by the French Revolution.
• Frontiers were blocked, and Enlightenment reforms ended due to fear of the revolutionary wave spreading from France.
• Following the execution of Louis XVI, Spain and France started a war, which ended with the Treaty of Basel (1795). Spain ceded its part of Hispaniola to France, while Gipuzkoa was returned to Spain.
• Manuel Godoy and Napoleon signed the Treaty of Fontainebleau (1807): an alliance to invade Portugal. However, invading Spain was also part of the French plans.
• The Aranjuez Mutiny (1808): A popular uprising against Godoy, supported by Ferdinand, the heir to the throne. This