Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and exercises for History for Secondary education

Political Shifts in 19th-Century Spain

Stability was achieved in Spain, and the peseta became the country’s official currency. In December 1874, another military uprising occurred. This brought the restoration of the monarchy, the return of the Bourbon dynasty, and the end of the First Republic.

North America: Expansion and Conflict

In North America, the United States consolidated itself as a sovereign nation and established its definitive borders. The arrival of many immigrants from Europe encouraged the United States to expand westwards and reach the Pacific coast. This expansion led to conflicts and wars with Native Americans, which resulted in the destruction of many tribes.

The northern states were hostile towards slavery, which still existed...

War and Revolution: 1914–1923

Rivalries between European countries had generated two powerful alliances that fought against one another during the First World War. Industrial and technological advances were used to manufacture weapons and other military equipment. Society was transformed by the war; for instance, many women worked in factories. Russia's participation in the war had severe effects on the population, which was one cause of the Russian Revolution. Spain remained neutral during the war. During this period, the Avant-garde movement greatly influenced art.

The First World War

The First World War was fought by two opposing alliances that included European countries, as well as the US and Japan.

Causes of the War

• Territorial Disputes:

The American Revolution: Q&A

Key Events and Figures

1. Purpose of the Declaration

The main purpose of the Declaration of Independence was to declare the separation of the United States from Britain.

2. The Patriot Spy

Nathan Hale was the patriot spy during the fight for New York.

3. Turning Point Battle

The Battle of Saratoga was a major turning point in the Revolution in the Middle States.

4. First Treaty of Alliance

France was the first country to sign a treaty of alliance with the U.S.

5. Sections of the Declaration

The Declaration of Independence is divided into the Preamble and three main sections that state some general ideas about society and government.

6. Native American Actions

Most Native American groups sided with the British during the...

American Space Travel: Milestones and Missions

In 1958, the U.S. Government formed the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) to be responsible for the American space program. However, the Americans weren't the first people to fly into space. In 1961, a Russian cosmonaut, Yuri Gagarin, became the first person to fly around the Earth. His flight took 108 minutes.

In 1961, President Kennedy challenged NASA to send a man to the Moon and return him safely to Earth. In 1969, Neil Armstrong, Buzz Aldrin, and Michael Collins started their journey to the Moon in Apollo 11. On July 20th, 1969, the entire world watched as Neil Armstrong became the first man to walk on the Moon.

In 1996, NASA sent a spacecraft to Mars, named Mars Pathfinder....

World War II and the Holocaust

• What was Hitler’s “Final Solution?”
  It was the mass genocide of people considered inferior by the Nazis.
• During what event might Germany be compared to a vast torture chamber?
  This description refers to the Holocaust.
• What was the immediate cause of WWII?
  The war began immediately when Germany invaded Poland.
• Chronological Order of Events:
  1. The Treaty of Versailles is signed
  2. Adolf Hitler becomes chancellor of Germany
  3. The Nazi invasion of Poland

The League of Nations and Cold War Dynamics

• What did the Japanese invasion of Manchuria and Hitler’s remilitarization demonstrate?
  These actions demonstrated the inherent weakness of the League of Nations.
• How did atomic weapons influence US and Soviet interaction during the Cold

Elizabeth I's Reign and Diplomacy

Elizabeth I skillfully prevented war at home by finding ways to prevent religious conflicts between Catholics and Protestants. She used the possibility of marriage to keep the peace. Her Catholic subjects were loyal because they thought she might marry one of their faith. For the same reason, Catholics were unwilling to go to war with England. At the same time, Protestant subjects hoped she would marry a Protestant.

She went to war with Spain. When they sent their huge fleet to invade England, Elizabeth sent out her ships to fight them off. Elizabeth I was left with the most powerful navy in the world.

The Glorious Revolution in England

As the ruler, James II tried to make England Catholic. Several English leaders...

The Rise of Totalitarianism

During the 1920s and 1930s, several European countries replaced their democracies with totalitarian regimes.

Causes of the Rise of Totalitarianism

The rise of totalitarianism in postwar Europe is explained by the critical situation of the era, characterized by:

• The difficult recovery after a devastating war.
• The fear of a workers' revolution similar to the one that triumphed in Russia.
• The fear of the economic crisis that began in 1929.

These factors led to the erosion of the liberal system and widespread distrust, as it was blamed for the prevailing instability.

Fascist Totalitarianism

Fascist totalitarianism, notably in Italy and Germany, was supported by all social classes and functioned as a mass movement. These regimes...

Monarchies in the 16th and 17th Centuries

Authoritarian monarchy emerged in the 16th century. The king concentrated all powers, but with some limitations, such as the participation of subjects in parliaments or courts.

Absolute monarchy arose in the 17th century. The king's power had no limits. Parliaments or courts ceased to exist. The king was seen as the direct representative of God on earth.

Mentees were people of absolute confidence of the king, who advised him in the affairs of government. In some cases, these 'valids' actually held the reins of power.

The reasons for this varied: in some cases, the issues of government were very complex and the king needed help from a sincere partner. In other cases, it appeared due to the apathy of kings...

The Origins of the Castilian Cortes and Tax Disputes

The reiteration of currency sales resulted in a tribute known as the forera currency. However, the situation escalated when the monarch, awaiting the completion deadline, demanded new collections under the threat of currency devaluation. Popular resistance and the struggle between the king and the council led to serious discussions regarding taxation within the full curiae. Councils, particularly affected by financial arbitrariness, insisted on being present. Consequently, citizens and prosecutors joined the curia for economic reasons, transforming the Cortes with the primary purpose of addressing tax rates.

II. Nature and Skills

The Cortes: Advisory Body or Royal Power Limiter?

The Cortes de...

Development of the Military Conflict

The Spanish Civil War can be divided into three phases:

Phase 1 (July 17, 1936 to mid 1937)

• Francisco Franco departed from the Canary Islands to Morocco and took charge of the Army of Africa (about 50,000 men). Crossing the Strait of Gibraltar, he joined the Andalusian rebels. Insurgent forces advanced from the north and from the south toward Madrid, but were contained to the area around the capital.
• The Republicans maintained control of 60% of Spanish territory, including the most populous, urban and industrialized areas.
• The rebel army occupied the most extensive agricultural and pastoral regions and surpassed the Republican army in organization, discipline, and supply.

Phase 2 (mid 1937 to summer 1938)

• Franco'