Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and exercises for History for Secondary education

The Formation of Al-Andalus (711): In 711, a Muslim army composed of Arabs and Berbers entered the Iberian Peninsula, taking advantage of the internal conflicts among the Visigoths. The decisive battle took place near the Guadalete River, where the Muslim army defeated the last Visigothic king.

After this victory, the Muslims occupied almost the entire peninsula, naming the conquered territory Al-Andalus.

Political Developments (711-1492)

Al-Andalus went through several phases from the initial invasion in 711 until 1492:

• Dependent Emirate of Damascus (Umayyad Caliphate): Al-Andalus was initially dependent on the Umayyad Caliphate, with its capital in Damascus. During these years, the Muslims continued to occupy the peninsula, except for some northern

Government

• The pharaohs had viziers.

• Almost every pharaoh was a man.

• When a pharaoh died, his son or wife would sometimes become the next pharaoh.

• The pharaoh was the king and was considered a god.

• They had a dynasty, meaning there was a series of rulers from the same family.

• Menes was the first king to unite Upper and Lower Egypt.

Innovation

• Egypt prospered under effective pharaohs.

• The pharaohs used their enormous wealth and power to build pyramids.

• The pyramids represented the Egyptian belief that life is a passageway to the afterlife, an existence believed to follow death.

• The pyramids took many years to build.

• The first pyramid built was Khufu.

• The pyramids were built in the Old Kingdom.

Vulnerability

• The Hyksos came to live in Egypt and brought an end

Ancient Greece: Geography and its Influence

The modern countries which formed part of Hellas are: Macedonia, Albania, Greece, and Turkey.

The seas that surround Greek territory are the Mediterranean, Ionian, and Aegean.

The natural environment significantly influenced Greek history. Most of the land was dry and rocky, resulting in limited agriculture. The Greeks obtained much of their food from the Mediterranean Sea. They became expert sailors and crossed the sea for trade.

Why Ancient Greece Wasn't a Unified Country

Ancient Greece did not become a single country because of its physical relief:

• Mountains divided mainland Greece into small valleys.
• Islands were separated from each other by the sea.
• Each valley or island functioned like a small, independent

The Communist Bloc (1945-1982)

The Soviet Union and the “People's Democracies”

The Soviet Union emerged as a military superpower after World War II. Following Stalin's death in 1953, Nikita Khrushchev initiated a “de-Stalinization” process, but his successor, Leonid Brezhnev, halted the reforms.

In Central and Eastern Europe, the Soviet Union established “people's democracies” that imposed Soviet institutions. Despite this, living standards in these countries never reached Western levels.

China under Mao Zedong

A civil war erupted in China in 1945, leading to the communist victory in 1949. This resulted in the creation of two states:

• People's Republic of China, led by Mao Zedong
• Republic of China in Taiwan

Mao's regime maintained political...

The court sided With Zenger and determined that the press has a Right and responsability to keep the public informed of the truth. Freedom of The press gives journalists the right to publish the truth without restriction Or penalty. Libe lis the publishing of statements that damage a person´s Reputation. Benjamin Franklin was the founder Of the newspaper, Pennsylvania Gazette. Inventor of Stove, Street lamps, Lighting, rod and bifocals. Co-founder of first public hospital, library, fire Department, liberal arts academy. Albany Congress Was organized by the British government. British government called a meeting Amongst all the colonial leaders. This meeting would be held in Albany, New York. The British Government Goal was for the Colonies

NATIONALISM

Napoleon

In 1802, Napoleon was named First Consul for life after his victory in Italy. In 1804, he was declared Emperor. He established the Civil Code, covering marriage, divorce, education, and inheritance.

Napoleon conquered many areas of Europe and spread Enlightened policies, but Austria, Prussia, and Great Britain tried to prevent it. Napoleon also had many problems when he invaded Spain and Russia. Finally, Napoleon was defeated at the Battle of Waterloo in 1815.

Napoleon in Spain

Napoleon's Occupation of Spain

Charles IV and his minister Manuel Godoy supported Napoleon against Britain, but Spain was defeated at the Battle of Trafalgar (1805).

In 1807, Spain and France signed the Treaty of Fontainebleau, by which Charles IV let the French troops...

American Revolution (1775-1783)

The American Revolution (1775-1783) was a period in which the 13 colonies on the Atlantic side of North America won independence from Great Britain and became the United States of America (USA). Americans complained that they had to pay high taxes to Great Britain but were given no political representation.

Immediate Causes of the French Revolution

• Unemployment increase
• Market went into recession
• Cost of living doubled
• American War of Independence
• Payment failures

Key Events of the French Revolution

The Beginning

In 1789, the Estates General finally met. There were 291 representatives of the Church, 270 nobles, and 578 of the Third Estate. They immediately asked to change the voting system, at least to one person, one...

February Revolution (1917)

• By early 1917, Russia faced economic hardship, rations, widespread hunger, and military defeats.
• In February 1917, massive protests led by women and workers erupted in Petrograd.
• The army mutinied, and the Duma supported the revolution; the Tsar abdicated.
• A Provisional Government was formed, promising reforms and elections.
• At the same time, Soviets (workers', peasants' and soldiers' councils) spread across Russia, representing workers, peasants, and soldiers.
• This created a situation of dual power: the Duma/Provisional Government (liberal) and the Soviets (radical).
• Lenin returned from exile and presented the April Theses: rejection of the Provisional Government, transfer of power to the Soviets, nationalisation of land