Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and exercises for History for Secondary education

Why do revolutions happen?

The reforms of the Enlightenment did not solve the problems of the old regime. That is why this system came to an end through revolution. But other aspects of life were also influential in the desire to change and break away from the old system and social inequality between privileged classes and non-privileged classes.

The New State

After the war, the United States had a liberal system and was regulated by the U.S. Constitution. It was organized as a federal republic, establishing national sovereignty and separation of powers among the President, Congress, and the Supreme Court.

Tea Act

The Tea Act gave the British East India Company a monopoly on the sale of tea in the colonies, as well as the right to duty-free exports....

Estate-Based Society

Society was divided into three estates:

• Nobility: Held significant power.
• Clergy: Possessed less power than the nobility.
• Third Estate: Comprised of the bourgeoisie, city workers, and peasants; they had few rights and paid substantial taxes.

Causes of the War of Spanish Succession

The War of the Spanish Succession stemmed from several causes, primarily the death of Charles II without a direct heir. This led England and Austria to form a Grand Alliance opposing the recognition of Philip V as King of Spain, as they supported Charles of Austria.

Consequences of the War

The primary consequence was the recognition of Philip V as King of Spain. However, Spain and France agreed to remain separate entities. Spain lost territories including...

Political Regimes

The Absolute Monarchies

The powers of state government were controlled by the monarch, without having to consult traditional institutions (the Cortes).

The theory of the divine origin of their power. Centralized administration (it was managed from the court by civil servants who ensured that the monarch controlled the economy and army and that their orders were obeyed throughout their kingdom).

Example: Louis XIV of France ("Sun King")

The Parliamentary Systems

The power of the monarch was limited by the parliament, which represented the interests of the three estates.

England attempted to introduce absolute monarchy, but the English parliament opposed. There were two revolutions: in the first one, Charles I was executed; in the...

Mussolini’s rise to power

To the majority of Italians, the Versailles settlement was a bitter disappointment. Although Italy gained some territories, it was ignored. It seemed that other countries, particularly Yugoslavia, had gained at Italy’s expense. The territories that Italy gained were Trentino, South Tyrol, Istria, and Trieste.

Italy had borrowed heavily to finance its involvement in the First World War, leading to soaring inflation. In addition to this massive increase in the cost of living, Italians faced high unemployment as industry reduced production. The number of people seeking jobs increased with the return of the soldiers. Italy's parliamentary system was based on proportional representation, with more than nine political...

Economic Recovery (The 1920s)

Definition

Loans and investments in European industries were given by the American government. War reparations and payments were revised.

Aim

To increase the value of the German mark (currency).

Consequence

The United States also helped other European countries by giving them loans and selling the consumer goods they lacked. As a result, by the mid-1920s, the world economy began to recover and grew steadily. It was a prosperous time, known as the Roaring Twenties.

The Wall Street Crash of 1929

Industrial Overproduction

During World War I, American industry supplied Europe, so they produced more. After the war, European industry started to recover, and European countries started producing their own products.

Consequence

Europe...

The Congress of Vienna and the Restoration

The Congress of Vienna, convened after Napoleon's defeat in 1815, marked a return to the Ancien Régime. European powers—Austria, Prussia, Russia, and Great Britain—sought to restore the pre-revolutionary political order.

Two key alliances emerged during this period:

• The Holy Alliance: Comprising Russia, Prussia, and Austria.
• The Quadruple Alliance: Including Russia, Prussia, Austria, and Great Britain.

Revolutions and Ideologies

The 19th century witnessed numerous revolutions across Europe, fueled by discontent with the restored order. These uprisings were driven by powerful ideologies:

Liberalism

Liberalism championed individual liberties and resonated with the burgeoning bourgeoisie. Its core principles...

At the beginning of the Modern Age, sixteenth century, Spanish monarchs (Catholic Monarchs, Charles I, Philip II) wanted more and more territories, power, money ... For that, they did a series of things within the country (internal politics) and outside the country (foreign policy) to improve their wealth and gain more power. They began to conquer more and more territories. They succeeded and built the "Spanish Empire". However, by the seventeenth century, it would have gotten worse.

The foreign policy of the Catholic Monarchs (the alliances of Isabella of Castile and Ferdinand of Aragon) with the European Kingdom (Habsburg) for the movement policy with Portugal-England also, conquered the land in North Africa (Melilla, Algeria, and Libya).

World War I: Causes and Outbreak

World War I began in 1914, following the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria-Hungary. The conflict pitted the Central Powers (Germany, Austria-Hungary, Bulgaria, and the Ottoman Empire) against the Allied Powers (Great Britain, France, Russia, Italy, Romania, Japan, and the United States).

The assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand triggered a series of diplomatic crises that led to the outbreak of war. Austria-Hungary, convinced that Serbia was behind the assassination, declared war on Serbia on July 28, 1914. Russia, allied with Serbia, mobilized its army in response, prompting Germany to declare war on Russia and France.

Within a week, World War I had begun, with Russia, Belgium, France,...