Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and exercises for History for Baccalaureate

The Liquidation of Colonial Rule

After six years of revolutionary upheaval, Cánovas reformed the parliamentary system and implemented an isolationist foreign policy to prevent Spain from becoming entangled in international conflicts. This approach, in the long run, proved disastrous.

Cuba had always been the jewel in the national Crown. Economically, its value increased when the island became the world's leading producer of sugar cane, coffee, and tobacco. These industries were controlled by Creoles who, at the time of Spanish American independence, preferred to remain loyal to the Crown rather than fall into the hands of emancipated Black revolutionaries. However, the loyalty of the Creoles began to waver due to the fall in sugar cane prices...

Spanish Foreign Policy in the 18th Century

The evolution of Spanish foreign policy in Europe during the 18th century was profoundly shaped by the Treaty of Utrecht (1713), which resulted in significant territorial losses for Spain in Europe. Following this, the fundamental alliance shifted to Spain-France, formalized through the Family Compacts – treaties of mutual support. England, the greatest naval power, emerged as the primary adversary. Spain's foreign policy became less focused on Austria after these territorial adjustments.

Philip V: Recovery and Italian Ambitions

King Philip V actively sought to recover lost territories, specifically Minorca and Gibraltar. He also pursued a strategy to conquer territories in Italy, aiming to establish...

The Formation of the Blocs

In 1888, Wilhelm II was proclaimed Emperor of Germany. He adopted a global policy, forcing Chancellor Bismarck to resign. Relations between France and Germany were immediately strained over the territories of Alsace and Lorraine, which the French desperately wanted to regain after losing them in 1871 following the Franco-Prussian War.

Other countries with tense relations were Austria-Hungary and Russia, primarily due to political and economic competition for control in the Balkan area. The rivalries between Britain and Germany were fundamentally economic, as both sought to secure new markets globally. Consequently, Britain sought an alliance with France.

Beginning in 1907, the major European powers were divided into...

Colonial Labor and Administration

The Encomienda System

The Encomienda was a foundational institution organizing and regulating Indigenous manual labor. It was effective in areas with dense populations and established technology and economy.

In Chile, the system often evolved into personal service (servicios personales), substituting taxes in kind, which frequently led to the exploitation of Indigenous holdings. Religious Orders often protested these abuses, leading to the enactment of protective laws and taxes.

Key Labor Regulations and Contracts

• Santillán's Ordinances: Maintained personal service and the Mita (forced rotational labor) for Indigenous men aged 18–50. Prohibited Sunday labor and festive transport of Indigenous people.
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The Cuban Missile Crisis

In 1956, a revolution led by Fidel Castro and Ernesto Guevara took place in Cuba. The rise to power of Fidel Castro caused relations between Cuba and the U.S. to deteriorate, as the new government's reforms affected American interests and companies. Cuba then turned to the USSR in search of financial support and protection.

For this reason, in October 1960, the U.S. ordered an embargo on exports to the island, and in early 1961, broke off diplomatic relations with the Cuban government. A group of Cuban exiles, supported by the CIA, made a failed attempt to invade the island. Cuba's response was to strengthen relations with the USSR, which then proceeded to install nuclear missiles on the island.

This represented a serious...

The Congress of Vienna

After Napoleon's defeat, thanks to the union of absolute monarchies and the implacable opposition of the United Kingdom to French hegemony, the winners met to rearrange the map of Europe, as amended by Napoleon, and to restore the old regime. The United Kingdom, Austria, Prussia, Russia, and France met at the Congress of Vienna. Their initial purpose was to impose popular sovereignty in Europe. They formed the Holy Alliance and the Quadruple Alliance. The new map of Europe was presented: Belgium and Holland were united, Italy was divided, France maintained its borders of 1792, and the Germanic Confederation was created, including the Prussian Rhineland.

Fernando VII

Three periods are identified during his reign:

1. The Absolutist

The Cold War and the New International Order

Concept

A period of permanent tension between two opposing blocs led by the superpowers: the USA and the USSR.

Features

• Bipolarity: Domination by two major powers.
• Proxy Conflicts: Avoidance of direct widespread warfare in favor of minor regional conflicts.
• Arms Race: The development of nuclear arsenals as a deterrent to prevent direct confrontation.
• Economic Competition: Economic systems designed to sustain the respective blocs.
• Political Influence: The struggle between Western democracy and Soviet socialism.

Formation of Blocs

• Post-War Tensions: Initial differences emerged at the Potsdam Conference (July 1945).
• Key Rhetoric: Winston Churchill’s "Iron Curtain" speech and the Truman Doctrine of containment.

The winter of 1941–1942 marked the formalization of the alliance between the major powers fighting the Axis. This coalition included Britain, France, China, the USSR, and the United States.

The Formation of the Allied Powers (1941-1942)

The foundation for this alliance was laid when the United States (under President Roosevelt) and Great Britain (under Prime Minister Churchill) signed the Atlantic Charter. From that time, Britain began to receive crucial aid.

Key events rapidly internationalized the conflict:

• Just days after the Atlantic Charter, the USSR was attacked by Nazi Germany. Despite the USSR's political and economic system being contrary to that of the capitalist countries, military relations with Britain began to be established.
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The Liberal Revolution in Spain: Cádiz Courts and the 1812 Constitution (1800-1820)

This period marked the start of a new regime, characterized by significant liberal reforms.

Analysis and Evaluation of Disentailment Measures (1811-1856)

Disentailment involved the removal of property from the nobility, clergy, and town halls, fundamentally altering land ownership.

Liberalism During the Reign of Isabella II (1833-1868)

This era saw the consolidation of liberalism, though it was often characterized by the dominance of conservatism and a significant military role.

The Democratic Revolution Attempt: The Revolutionary Sexenio (1868-1878)

Following the conservative and oligarchic rule of Isabella II, this six-year period represented an attempt to introduce...