Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and exercises for History for Baccalaureate

Factors in the Latin American Independence Movement

Several factors influenced the Latin American independence process:

• The example of U.S. independence.
• New ideas of liberty, contrary to the old regime.
• The modernization that affected all of Europe during the Napoleonic Empire.
• The power vacuum that occurred during the French occupation of the Iberian Peninsula.
• The military and political weakness of Spain after 1814.

The Creoles (ijos, children of Spanish and Portuguese) led the emancipation processes. There were areas where the population was almost entirely Creole or white, while in others, the indigenous population was the majority. In Brazil and the Caribbean, Black slaves predominated. The leaders of the economy and politics of these societies...

The First Spanish Republic (1873-1874)

The First Republic (1873-1874) was proclaimed by the two legislative chambers meeting on 11 February 1873.

Initially, it was a permanent yet politically unstable regime. It dispensed with the usual procedure of convening constituent courts, instead forming a government headed by the Republican Estanislao Figueras, though it remained largely radical.

The Republicans wanted to hold elections to gather constituent Cortes, while the radicals sought to prevent two coups promoted with the help of the army. Consequently, the Republicans were left alone in the government.

The Constitutional Process and Federalism

In May, elections were finally held. The new government, headed by Pi i Maragall, began the process of...

8.2 Philip II: Following the abdication of Charles I, his son Philip II divided the territories. Unlike his father, Philip II of Castile did not leave except to go to Portugal. He gave the kingdom a fixed capital, Madrid, in 1561, placing it there because it was better for the king; there was a strong nobility and a powerful bishopric, meaning the city would have no opposition. His political principles are:

"The support of the Catholic Church against a movement that occurs with Protestantism in Europe. The Church holds a Catholic Counter: new orders, art, repression, censorship... by the Inquisition.

• Expand their territories.

There was internal repression against Protestantism; indeed, in Castile and Aragon, many were prosecuted by the Inquisition....

The 1920s: International Economic Policy

The early postwar years were marked by a lack of international cooperation and the rise of protectionist policies. To address this, the Dawes Plan was adopted to improve the European economy with the following objectives:

• Normalization of the German economy.
• Stabilization of the German currency.
• Regulation of war reparations.
• Provision of American loans for German recovery.

Consequently, Germany introduced a new currency. Meanwhile, the U.S. experienced economic growth through increased production, lower prices, and the development of new industrial sectors. The situation in Europe varied:

• France: Industrial growth.
• United Kingdom: Economic stagnation.
• Germany: Severe crisis followed by recovery until 1925.

The

Victorian England

Economy and Territory

The reign of Victoria I started in 1837 and continued until 1901 (the Victorian era). Britain reached its maximum territorial expansion. Economic development was affected by a crisis affecting agriculture; cultivated land was reduced, and farmers abandoned the countryside and moved to the cities or emigrated to America. Despite this, Britain continued to be the main financial center thanks to a strong currency. Issues related to imperialist economic expansion were closely tied to trade, finance, and control of shipping routes.

Politics and Reform

It began with the extension of suffrage, and political life revolved around two parties: the Tories and Whigs. Disraeli carried out electoral reform, considered...

Crisis and Split of the Spanish SPA

Paul Lafargue, Karl Marx's son-in-law, arrived in Madrid in 1871 and led the group of Marxist internationalists. Integrated in Madrid by Pablo Iglesias, they spread their ideas through the newspaper La Emancipación. Discrepancies between anarchists and socialists led to the expulsion of the Madrid group from the SPA because most of the organizations were integrated into the anarchist International (AIT). This led to the founding of the new Madrid Federation (of a Marxist character).

Anarchism and Direct Action in Spain

The SPA (anarchist trend) changed its name to the Federation of the Spanish Region Workers (FTRE). This was partly due to the new law prohibiting international organizations. This federation...

The process of disentailment (Desamortización) was a significant liberal agrarian reform in Spain. Following the French model, church property was nationalized and subsequently sold at public auctions to generate public income. These sanitation measures were established through public finance laws.

The Three Stages of Disentailment

First Stage: Godoy and the Early 19th Century

The first stage began under Godoy in 1798, affecting church property to benefit the Royal Treasury (Hacienda). Later, in 1809, Joseph Bonaparte targeted the properties of the regular clergy and aristocrats. The Courts of Cádiz approved decrees that favored the upper and middle classes during the Liberal Triennium. During this time, public debt was managed through vales

The Peasantry in the Early 20th Century

Despite social changes, peasants remained the majority population group in the early twentieth century. Their way of life remained traditional and was opposed to social and political transformations. Peasants were hostile to liberalism first and then to socialism. They were considered conservatives and supporters of order and religion. Two distinct groups emerged:

• 1. The more affluent, who adapted to the liberal policies that benefited them, became landowners.
• 2. The laborers, who had no land and were only paid for work performed. Revolutionary ideologies, such as anarchism, took hold in these areas.

Marginalized Workers in the Early 20th Century

There were two main groups of workers: those in industry and...

1.1. The Causes of Conflict: The Foral Question

The Carlist conflict stemmed from a complex mix of succession disputes, ideological confrontation, and broad social support. The groups supporting the Carlist cause were driven by various motives:

• Peasants: Feared becoming laborers or tenants of large landowners.
• Lower Nobility: Felt threatened by the disappearance of primogeniture and tax exemptions in northern Spain.
• Conservative Clergy: Opposed measures of disentailment and the suppression of religious orders.
• Artisans: Feared the disappearance of the guilds.
• Army Officers: Dissatisfied with the country's evolution or their professional status.
• Rural Inhabitants: Deeply rooted in protection and patronage relations.
• Regionalists: Residents of the Basque

The Federal Experience

After the brief tenure of Figueras, the government was chaired by Pi y Margall. The new president formed a commission to develop a new Constitution. This followed federalist models similar to the United States and Switzerland, envisioning the Spanish nation structured into 17 states, including overseas territories like Cuba and Puerto Rico. Each state could develop its own constitution, provided it remained within the bounds of the greater national constitution. The proposed constitution was progressive, mirroring the 1869 document regarding rights and freedoms. However, the Federal Constitution of 1873 was never enacted due to the cantonal uprising, the resurgence of the Cuban war, and the outbreak of the Carlist War....