Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and exercises for History for Baccalaureate

Spain's Bourbon Restoration (1874)

The Republic faced significant resistance and lacked a broad social base on which to support itself. Power was held by Union and Progress, led by General Serrano, who attempted to stabilize a conservative republican regime. But the social base had already opted for the Alfonsine solution: the return of the son of Isabel II.

On December 29, 1874, the military pronunciamiento by Martínez Campos at Sagunto proclaimed Alfonso XII King of Spain. Isabel II had previously abdicated in favor of her son. On December 1, Prince Alfonso de Borbón had signed the *Sandhurst Manifesto*, written by Cánovas del Castillo, which synthesized the agenda of the new Alfonsine monarchy: a conservative Catholic regime that would...

The Unification of Italy and the German Empire

In Central Europe, there existed no national states but a patchwork of principalities of unequal size and feudal origin. It was the Kingdom of Piedmont and Prussia which led the complex processes of unification that would give rise to Italy and Germany. The Austrian Empire presented a significant obstacle.

Italy's Unification: Revolutionary Path Failure (1815-1849)

Since 1815, the north and center of the Italian peninsula were under Austrian influence. Only the Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia, with its capital in Turin, and the Papal States, with their capital in Rome, remained independent. The Kingdom of the Two Sicilies in the south was ruled by the Bourbons. All these territories shared a common language,...

Imperialism: Theories and Causes

The great powers established vast empires across Oceania, Asia, and Africa. Commercial factors were significant, as they involved negotiating exports with native populations.

Theories on Imperialism

• National Interest: Colonies were considered important for military, strategic, and economic reasons, deemed necessary for national development.
• The White Man's Civilizing Mission: The perceived duty to extend the benefits of the Western world, converting and subjecting populations to white Christianity.
• Private Benefit: Certain social groups benefited from the exploitation of colonies, leading to the theory that imperialism was an instrument of oligarchy.
• Needs of Financial Capitalism: Essential for companies seeking capitalist

The October Revolution of 1934

The Left replied negatively to the government of Lerroux. Accusations were leveled against monarchists and fascists, claiming they were acting against workers and the Republic. These tensions culminated in a general strike planned for October 5th in Asturias and Catalonia. However, the two strikes took very different forms.

The UHP Revolution in Asturias

In Asturias, miners staged a social revolution, resulting from a prior accord among anarchists, socialists, and communists who formed the Workers' Alliance: UHP (Unión de Hermanos Proletarios - Workers' Brothers Union). The strike led to significant violence and destruction. Upon receiving the news, the Lerroux government mobilized the army. France was reportedly...

The War of Spanish Succession and the Treaty of Utrecht

The War of Spanish Succession began after the last Habsburg king, Charles II, died in 1700. Having no offspring, his will left the crown of Spain to Philip of Anjou (later Philip V), the grandson of Louis XIV of France. However, Archduke Charles of Austria claimed the same right to the crown. The war began when Philip V took the throne; the Habsburgs, zealous of Bourbon hegemony in Europe, claimed their rights to the throne, sparking the conflict.

The war had a European dimension, while in Spain, it became a civil war. Castile supported the Bourbon pretender, while the Crown of Aragon supported the Habsburg suitor. After the battles of Villaviciosa and Brihuela (1710), the conflict tilted...

Consequences of World War I

Demographic and Economic Effects

The loss of life was high, nearly 8 million people died. One must also take into account mortality from lack of food, poor hygiene, and the influenza epidemic of 1918. Mobilization primarily affected men between 20 and 40. This meant the permanent loss of European hegemony in the global economy. The conflict impoverished many countries. All countries involved were in debt. America was the biggest beneficiary of the war; the American economy became the world leader, and its gross domestic product doubled. In addition, the U.S. fleet replaced Britain's. The dollar replaced the pound sterling as the base currency internationally. The war also benefited Japan, increasing its production...

U.S. Imperialism and Expansionism

U.S. expansionism emerged as a response to intense European protectionism. The difficulties imposed by tariffs on American products fostered the belief that the nation needed to establish relationships with new areas to secure markets for its goods. This policy was built upon ideological foundations, specifically Social Darwinism, which promoted the idea that the U.S. had to compete with other nations to survive. Furthermore, the Monroe Doctrine solidified the opinion that the U.S. should intervene to defend its interests throughout the American continent.

Strategic Interests and Colonialism

Consequently, U.S. expansionist policy was oriented toward the Caribbean, Central and South America, and the Pacific. Strategic...

Catalan Culture and Identity

Persistence of Catalan Identity

The persistence of Catalan identity is evident through the use of Catalan-language daily and written texts, songs, popular ballads, and religious customs and traditions, fostering a particularist consciousness within the Spanish monarchy.

The Renaixença: Language and Culture Revival

This movement marked a significant revival of the Catalan language and culture, manifesting in two main streams:

• Cultured Stream

  Promoted the Catalan language as a literary language. Key figures like Bonaventura Carles Aribau and Joaquim Rubió i Ors were instrumental, promoting initiatives such as the Floral Games. This stream often utilized archaic Catalan.

• Popular Stream

  Focused on the 'spoken' Catalan, promoting

Causes of the Great War

Relations between France and Germany were severely strained by territorial claims over Alsace and Lorraine, which France had lost in the 1870 Franco-Prussian War. Simultaneously, disputes between Russia and the Austro-Hungarian Empire for control of the Balkans created a volatile environment. Economic rivalries further fueled this climate of confrontation, as Great Britain and Germany competed for new markets and financial dominance. Germany's rapid industrial development necessitated expansion, which the British Empire perceived as a direct threat, particularly regarding German naval policy. Consequently, Britain sought a strategic alliance with France.

Formation of Power Blocs

By 1907, Europe was divided into two major...

The Treaty of Versailles.
The agreement contained clauses stipulating territorial, military and economic sanctions. Forced Germany to admit guilt in starting the war and pay reparations for damage caused by promoting a feeling vengeful German.
General ideas: - The recognition of nationalities, map of Europe. - Implementation of the forms of democratic republicanism. - The punishment of defeated, which included financial compensation.
The territorial losses of Germany. Germany lost 15.5% of its territory and 10% of its population.
Alsace and Lorraine went to France. The Saar is administered by the League of Nations. The area of Eupen Malmedy went to Belgium. Some areas of West Prussia was allocated to Poland. The zone would Memel to Lithuania....