Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and exercises for History for Baccalaureate

Dynastic Change: The Early Bourbons and Political Absolutism

The arrival of the Bourbon dynasty in the eighteenth century led to the implementation of a model known as political absolutism. This meant that the absolute monarch was the incarnation of the state; his power was limitless, the source of law, and the maximum authority. The first Spanish Bourbons were Philip V and Ferdinand VI.

The Nueva Planta Decrees and Centralization

Through the Nueva Planta decrees, Philip V imposed a centralized model upon the territories of the former Crown of Aragon by right of conquest. These decrees also:

• Abolished the separate courts of the Crown of Aragon, integrating them into the Courts of Castile, which effectively became the sole legislative body.
• Abolished

The Reign of Isabella II: The Moderate Decade (1844–1854)

Proclaimed queen at 13 years of age, Isabella II assumed the throne of Spain in 1843. She ordered the formation of a moderate government led by Narváez. The Constitution of 1837 was revoked and replaced by the Constitution of 1845, which granted new powers to the Crown and the government while limiting the authority of Parliament. The legislative chamber was maintained, and census suffrage remained in effect.

Key Political and Administrative Reforms

• Legal Reforms: Implementation of new Tax, Civil, and Penal codes.
• Civil Guard (1844): A military police force established to maintain order in rural areas.
• Educational Reform: The Pidal Plan (1845) established secondary education institutes.

The Regency of María Cristina (1885-1902)

The Pact of El Pardo and Political Stability

In November 1885, Alfonso XII died. His second wife, María Cristina of Austria, became regent. To ensure the stability of the regime, Prime Ministers Sagasta (Liberal) and Cánovas del Castillo (Conservative) established the agreement known as the Pact of El Pardo.

They pledged to:

• Support the regency.
• Provide relief in the government (alternation) when the ruling party lost prestige or public support.
• Not repeal the fundamental laws approved by the opposing party.

While intended to stabilize the monarchy, the pact ultimately exacerbated political corruption and distorted the popular will through electoral manipulation.

The Liberal Government and Major Reforms

The Cuban War of Independence

Antecedents, Causes, and the Start of the Insurrection

After the Peace of Zanjón, which ended the Ten Years' War, the Spanish metropolis had committed to introducing reforms on the island. However, all it did was enhance the exploitation of the colony and its Hispanization. This desperate situation spurred both independence and autonomy supporters into action.

For 15 years, plots were hatched against the mother country, paving the way for the Baire Uprising. The autonomists were supportive of reforms but continued to demand more significant changes, greater legal certainty, and legal equality with the mainland. A key development was the foundation of the democratic, Antillean, and interracial Cuban Revolutionary

Organized Opposition to Tsarism

Organized opposition to the Tsarist regime demanded political freedom, social change, and economic reforms. Early movements included:

Populist Agrarian Socialism

The Populists advocated agrarian socialism, based on the collectivization of land and freedom for the peasantry. They created organizations to disseminate their thoughts and carry out terrorist acts, but largely failed.

Anarchists and The People's Will

Anarchists formed another terrorist organization, **The People's Will** (Narodnaya Volya), which successfully assassinated Tsar Alexander II.

The Rise of Marxist Socialism

While others moved toward a revolutionary socialist party, in 1898, the **Russian Social Democratic Workers' Party (RSDWP)** was founded,...

Napoleon Bonaparte: From Consul to Emperor

Napoleon Bonaparte initially shared power with two consuls but eventually declared himself sole Consul for life. The Consulate, under Napoleon's influence, implemented a new constitution with limited suffrage, favoring the wealthy and effectively nullifying the Declaration of the Rights of Man. Napoleon suppressed popular Jacobinism and democratic tendencies. He crowned himself Emperor in 1804.

Napoleon initiated significant institutional creations and reforms, consolidating some achievements of the 1791 revolution. He oversaw the drafting of a Civil Code, a Commercial Code, and a Penal Code. He also centralized administration, developed public education, and promoted linguistic unification.

Napoleon'

Administration of the British Empire Colonies

In the 19th century, colonies were directly dependent on the British Parliament. White settler colonies were transformed into dominions—areas with their own parliament and government. India followed a different model of political and economic administration, combining protectorates and areas directly administered by British officials; however, the indigenous population had no rights.

The French Colonial Political Model

The French colonial model applied the management system of mainland France to all its colonies, which became overseas departments. While French residents in the colonies enjoyed full political rights, the native populations lacked them. In these overseas departments, no form of self-...

Tsarist Russia

Political Situation

Russia was an absolutist, autocratic empire, headed by the Tsar who exercised power in a despotic and arbitrary manner. His rule was based on three pillars: a loyal bureaucracy, a powerful army that ensured control of the empire, and the Orthodox Church, which blessed him ideologically. In the late nineteenth century, Russia encountered new ideologies: populism, liberalism, anarchism, and socialism.

Economic Situation

Russia had a largely agrarian and underdeveloped economy. Land was the basis of wealth and belonged to the nobility, the Church, and the Crown. Industrial capitalism penetrated and settled in very specific, localized areas—such as St. Petersburg, the Urals, and the Donets Basin—primarily through...

The Victory of the Popular Front (1936)

The **election campaign** was extremely aggressive, reflecting the rising *insurrectional fascist* sentiment in Spain and the division into two antagonistic blocs. The Popular Front ultimately won, resuming the reformist agenda. However, during the first few months of its government, **political polarization** increased significantly, leading to the deterioration of social coexistence.

Continuation of the Reform Agenda

The new government, led by President Manuel Azaña, consisted of members of *Izquierda Republicana* and the *Unión Republicana*, as agreed in the pre-electoral pacts. Niceto Alcalá Zamora continued to serve as President until May, when he was dismissed by the courts at the initiative of...

19th Century Spanish Land Reform

Liberal governments carried out reforms with the objective of transforming ownership structures and forms of land exploitation to establish a system of liberal capitalism. Reform measures were implemented during periods like 1836-1841 and 1854-1856.

Key Liberal Reforms

• Decoupling of Entail (Desvinculación)

  This meant the end of entailed estates (mayorazgos) and allowed owners to freely sell, purchase, and lease land.

• Dissolution of Manorial Regime (Señoríos)

  Adopted to make lords waive rights of feudal origin, such as justice, appointing local officials, and collecting certain taxes. These rights became the state's jurisdiction.

• Confiscation (Desamortización)

  Confiscation of Church and Communal Property.

  • Mendizábal'