Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and exercises for History for Baccalaureate

Reyes de Castilla

Ferdinand III (c. 1201–1252)

The union of Castile and Leon under Ferdinand III marked a pivotal era in history. His reign was considered a model of governance, as he significantly restricted Muslim rule in the Iberian Peninsula—most notably through the conquests of Cordoba and Seville—and established political and economic measures that improved the lives of his subjects.

Ferdinand III’s dedication to the Reconquista, combined with his piety and respect for Christian morality, earned him the epithet "the Holy." His cultural and architectural contributions include:

• The construction of the cathedrals of Burgos and Leon.
• The founding of the University of Salamanca.
• Establishing Castilian as the official language of the nation.

Key Terms: French Revolution and Ancien Régime

Establishment: Responding to social divisions' own criteria. Feud, Ant, and the estates are closed groups, normally entered by circumstances of birth, as opposed to social classes that were defined by common interests.

Third Estate: One of the three estates of society's own feud. It consists of people who do not have the same privileges as the clergy and the nobility. Inside the Third Estate was the bourgeoisie.

Ancien Régime: A set of rules, social structures, and forms of government and property that existed in Europe until the liberal revolutions started in the late 18th century. A French expression used to describe the company they wanted to change.

Enlightenment: A cultural, political, and...

Ancient Greek Civilization: Origins and Development

The origins of Greek civilization trace back to the island of Crete, southeast of the Peloponnese, around 2100 BC. The history of the Greeks is a narrative of cultural mixing and merging among various peoples who settled in the territory of Greece.

Early Inhabitants and Indo-European Migrations

The earliest inhabitants of Greece, known as Pelasgians, faced successive invasions from Indo-European nomadic horsemen. These invaders, seeking better living conditions and possessing superior iron weaponry, proved invincible against the early Mediterranean cultures, effectively leveling them. Among these Indo-European invaders were the Hellenes, also known as Greeks, who gradually asserted control over...

Pre-War Conflicts Leading to World War I

With the two sides defined, Europe was under great strain, which is why this period is known as the Armed Peace (a time when, despite the absence of declared wars, all countries were preparing for one).

Key Conflicts Paving the Way for War

• Colonial Encounters

  These were largely driven by Germany. Kaiser Wilhelm II favored a more aggressive policy. He dismissed Bismarck and embarked on a series of attempts to gain ground in the colonies.

  In 1905, the First Moroccan Crisis took place. Wilhelm II supported the Sultan of Morocco to resist France's attempts to create a protectorate. War was narrowly avoided. To resolve the conflict, the Conference of Algeciras was held in 1906, where Spanish and French protectorates

The Classical Period of Ancient Greece

Plato belongs to the Classical period of ancient Greece, a time defined by a series of poleis (city-states) with distinct lifestyles and political regimes. Notable examples include Sparta, an oligarchy, and Athens, which possessed a democratic constitution.

At the beginning of the 5th century BC, the Persians invaded Ionia, threatening the entire region. The Greek cities, led by Athens and Sparta, defeated the Persian army in the Greco-Persian Wars. This victory led to the creation of the Delian League, headed by Athens, which became the cultural and political capital of antiquity. However, Athens aroused the suspicion of rival city-states, including Sparta, which declared war. The resulting Peloponnesian

Spain's Path to Democracy

The law mandated general elections but required the legalization of all political parties. In early 1977, the right of political association was regulated, leading to the legalization of approximately 150 parties. International credibility for the elections hinged on this legalization, with the PCE's legalization posing a significant challenge.

After negotiations, particularly with Santiago Carrillo, President Suarez legalized the PCE on April 9, a move seen as courageous and decisive for Spanish reconciliation. This decision caused unrest in the military, leading to the resignation of the Marine minister. General elections, the first since February 16, 1936, were called for June 15, 1977.

The elected Parliament, initially...

Introduction

We must begin by acknowledging the difficulty of analyzing such a recent historical period. Insufficient time has passed for a thorough analysis, and it is challenging to mitigate inevitable ideological biases.

Spain is now a democratic and European country. In light of its recent history, both circumstances hold special significance. Spain appears to have resolved its issues of isolation and backwardness, successfully integrating into the European mainstream. Both achievements occurred under the monarchy of Juan Carlos I, as his reign reunited Spain with modernity.

The reign of Juan Carlos I, which began in 1975, witnessed one of the most stable periods in contemporary Spanish history. During this time, Spain achieved significant...

In Extremadura, the military uprising had mixed support in its two provinces, mirroring the situation across the rest of the country. Opposition to the uprising was primarily supported by members of the Popular Front, workers, and peasants. These poorly armed groups were easily subdued by the stronger Army of Africa (comprising regular soldiers and legionnaires).

The Uprising's Beginning in Cáceres

In Cáceres, on July 17th, Popular Front supporters called for weapons from the Civil Governor, Antonio Canales, who denied their request under instructions from Madrid. The conspirators did not rise until July 19th, after receiving orders from Valladolid. The movement began in the capital, Cáceres, involving the Argel Regiment (27th), in connection...

The Negrín Government (May 1937 – March 1939)

The May 1937 events in Barcelona downplayed the influence of anarchists, while communists strengthened their positions. Spanish Communists demanded the dissolution of the POUM. Largo Caballero resigned, and Manuel Azaña, President of the Republic, requested the formation of a new Socialist government under Juan Negrín.

The new government was formed by Popular Front parties. Its Cabinet based its policy on prioritizing the military effort, which strengthened central power. To unify the war effort, all militias were integrated into the Popular Army, and control was established over industrial and agricultural production.

Negrín proposed his famous 13 Points, in which he sought to end the armed...

Major Cold War Flashpoints and Confrontations

The Suez Crisis (1956)

The Movement of Free Officers led a coup in Egypt, empowering Gamal Abdel Nasser, who decided to nationalize the Suez Canal. This decision led to the occupation of the Sinai Peninsula by Israel, supported by Britain and France. However, the Franco-British stance was strongly opposed by the U.S., forcing the European powers to withdraw.

The U.S. attitude during the crisis is explained by several strategic intentions:

• Its intention to seek allies in the Middle East.
• The attempt to replace the colonial powers (Britain and France) in the region.
• Demonstrating to France and Britain their inability to carry out foreign policies outside of U.S. supervision.

The Berlin Wall (1961)

The capitalist...