Colonial Administration and the Road to World War I

Administration of the British Empire Colonies

In the 19th century, colonies were directly dependent on the British Parliament. White settler colonies were transformed into dominions—areas with their own parliament and government. India followed a different model of political and economic administration, combining protectorates and areas directly administered by British officials; however, the indigenous population had no rights.

The French Colonial Political Model

The French colonial model applied the management system of mainland France to all its colonies, which became overseas departments. While French residents in the colonies enjoyed full political rights, the native populations lacked them. In these overseas departments, no form of self-government existed, as all decisions were made in France.

The Armed Peace and Naval Expansion

From 1890, the German Empire and William II embarked on an expansionist policy aligned with their economic potential. They started a program of investment in weaponry and the fleet, intervening in overseas conflicts. This German attitude aroused the suspicions of other European states, leading to parallel policies of rearmament. Meanwhile, Japan and the U.S. emerged as rivals in the Pacific. Between 1890 and 1914, international relations were defined by the so-called Armed Peace.

Shifting Alliances in Europe

• France: Broke an alliance with Russia in 1892 to improve relations with Great Britain, supporting each other in the conflict over Morocco.
• Russia: Sided with France, later strengthened its friendship with Great Britain, and abandoned expansionist dreams in Eastern and Central Asia.
• Great Britain: Decided to break its traditional isolation and joined the Triple Entente with France and Russia.
• Triple Alliance: Austria-Hungary maintained this alliance with Germany and Italy to defend interests in the Balkans.
• Italy: Moved closer to France and Britain, becoming an uncertain partner for the Central Powers (Germany and Austria-Hungary).

Global Expansion: Japan and the United States

The United States gained possessions in the Pacific in 1898. Simultaneously, Japan expanded into Korea and achieved hegemony in Manchuria.

The Balkan Crisis and the Path to War

In 1908, Austria-Hungary exploited the internal problems of the Turkish Empire to annex the Bosnia-Herzegovina region, despite Serbian protests supported by Turks and Russians. During this crisis, Great Britain, France, Italy, and Russia supported Serbia, while Germany supported Austria-Hungary, signaling the alignments that would occur in 1914.

The Balkan Wars of 1912 and 1913

As the Turkish Empire declined, new crises emerged. In 1912, Serbia, Montenegro, and Bulgaria declared war on the Turkish Empire. After the war, the victorious countries began a new conflict; on this occasion, supported by Austria-Hungary, Bulgaria faced Serbia, Greece, Turkey, and Romania. Bulgaria was defeated, and the main beneficiary was Serbia, which expanded into the region of Macedonia. The Balkan crisis of 1913 did not resolve the tensions; the following year, the conflict zone triggered World War I.