European Unifications: Italy, Germany, and the Rise of New Powers

The Unification of Italy and the German Empire

In Central Europe, there existed no national states but a patchwork of principalities of unequal size and feudal origin. It was the Kingdom of Piedmont and Prussia which led the complex processes of unification that would give rise to Italy and Germany. The Austrian Empire presented a significant obstacle.

Italy's Unification: Revolutionary Path Failure (1815-1849)

Since 1815, the north and center of the Italian peninsula were under Austrian influence. Only the Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia, with its capital in Turin, and the Papal States, with their capital in Rome, remained independent. The Kingdom of the Two Sicilies in the south was ruled by the Bourbons. All these territories shared a common language, Northern Italian. The northern Italian peninsula was much more industrialized than the South, which was agricultural and underdeveloped.

In some minority sectors of Italian society, the desire to form a unitary state grew, and new initiatives emerged:

• An intellectual movement, the Risorgimento, which dreamed of Italian unity.
• Economic ambitions led Piedmontese merchants and industrialists to wish for an expanded market.
• Various political projects attempted to unify the Italians, some around the Pope, others around Piedmont under its King.

The failure of these early projects necessitated seeking other ways to create a unified Italian state. The revolutions of 1820, 1830, and 1848 sought Italian unification. In 1848, popular opposition to the Austrian Empire, a common enemy of liberals and nationalists, grew. The primary promoter of Italian unification was Count Cavour.

German Empire Formation: Revolutionary Path Failure (1815-1849)

The former German Empire was replaced in 1815 by a Germanic Confederation, in which over thirty states co-existed. Among these, the Austrian Empire and the Kingdom of Prussia stood out. Both states had parts of their territory outside the Germanic Confederation. While the Kingdom of Denmark possessed a region within the Confederation, most of the German population was united by language, although most did not speak German.

The revolution of 1848 failed in its attempt to unify the German states and was not able to create a national state. The Frankfurt Parliament, which intended to proclaim a German constitution, did not have the support of Austria and Prussia and was rejected. In 1834, economic links contributed to unification.

Recourse to War (1849-1871)

The promoter of German unification was the Kingdom of Prussia and its Chancellor, Otto von Bismarck, a landowner representative of the conservative aristocracy who did not believe in the parliamentary system.

War with Denmark

In 1864, an international conflict arose between the Germanic Confederation and Denmark over the inheritance of the Danish duchies. Prussia, in union with Austria, declared war on Denmark.

War Against Austria

Seizing on the discussions between Austria and Prussia, Bismarck provoked another war in 1866 against Austria. Prussia had the support of Italy. The Austrian Empire was defeated, ceded Venice to Italy, and led to a reshaping of the Germanic Confederation. Austria was excluded, and Prussia was at the forefront of the new organization.

War with France

The victory of the Prussian army incurred the hostility of almost all German states and surprised the European powers. Napoleon III requested territorial compensation from Prussia. Bismarck used the French attitude to win over the German states and national public opinion, launching a war against France in 1870-1871. King William I was proclaimed Kaiser in Versailles, and thus a new German Empire was born.

United States and Japan: U.S. as a Great Power

The U.S. during the 19th century showed the following traits:

• Westward Expansion: The U.S. came to include 48 states by 1912. Its expansion was based on a constant flow of European immigrants. It also involved the extermination of the indigenous population, the purchase of territories, and the war against Mexico.
• North-South Confrontation and Civil War (1861-1865): This conflict occurred between the Northern and Southern states.
• Social and Political Reconstruction: The victory of the North marked the triumph of capitalism and the ruin of the South.