Spain's Colonial Decline: Cuba, 1898, and National Regeneration

The Liquidation of Colonial Rule

After six years of revolutionary upheaval, Cánovas reformed the parliamentary system and implemented an isolationist foreign policy to prevent Spain from becoming entangled in international conflicts. This approach, in the long run, proved disastrous.

Cuba had always been the jewel in the national Crown. Economically, its value increased when the island became the world's leading producer of sugar cane, coffee, and tobacco. These industries were controlled by Creoles who, at the time of Spanish American independence, preferred to remain loyal to the Crown rather than fall into the hands of emancipated Black revolutionaries. However, the loyalty of the Creoles began to waver due to the fall in sugar cane prices and fluctuations in the U.S. market, which was the main buyer.

Taking advantage of the Revolution of 1868, Manuel Céspedes started an uprising, which became the Ten Years' War (1868-1878). This war was led and directed by the native bourgeoisie, effectively supported by guerrillas of mestizos and Black individuals freed from slavery by the white insurgents.

After the Third Carlist War concluded, the government sent General Martínez Campos to Cuba with promises of amnesty, reform, and autonomies. Peace was achieved with the Pact of Zanjón (1878), but Spain did not keep its promises. As a result, a second uprising, known as the 'Little War' (Guerra Chiquita, 1879-1880), soon followed.

By that time, for the United States, Cuba was a space reserved for Spanish products, protected by high tariffs on foreign goods, mainly American, even though Americans were the main buyers of Cuban products.

In 1895, the final uprising, led by José Martí, began. Cánovas sent Martínez Campos, who blended military action with negotiations and promises. After refusing to take excessively repressive measures against the population, he was replaced by General Weyler. Weyler implemented a brutal strategy: burning crops and confining peasants in fortified villages to combat the guerrillas. These harsh methods, however, only intensified the conflict and eventually led to negotiations with the rebels.

The American press began to portray the Spanish as executioners of the Cuban people. The sinking of the battleship Maine, anchored in the port of Havana, was seized upon by the U.S. as sufficient cause for declaring war on Spain.

The war took place on two fronts: Cuba and the Philippines. The U.S. Navy fleets swiftly defeated the Spanish forces, leading to an armistice. Spain eventually accepted the evacuation of Cuba and Puerto Rico. With the Treaty of Paris (1898), Cuba was declared independent, while Puerto Rico and the Philippines passed into American control in exchange for 20 million dollars. Spain later sold the Caroline, Mariana, and Palau islands to Germany for 15 million marks.

The Crisis of 1898

Spain's defeat brought to light its technical and industrial backwardness, giving rise to Regeneracionismo. This movement manifested in several ways:

• Politicians proclaimed the need to end the Cánovas system.
• Economists called for national renewal.
• Industrialists demanded changes in the recruitment system. The army demanded modernization of its weaponry.
• Intellectuals called for reforms from the grassroots up.
• Political parties sought reforms to the system from the top down.