Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and exercises for History for Baccalaureate

The Spanish Civil War (1936-1939)

The Spanish Civil War, fought from July 17, 1936, to April 1, 1939, stands as the most significant and tragic event in 20th-century Spain. The war exposed deep-seated problems within Spanish society, particularly the challenges of political and social modernization. This conflict, preceding World War II, pitted liberalism and socialism against anti-democratic authoritarianism. Its immediate consequence was the establishment of a dictatorship that endured for forty years.

Prelude to War

The pre-war situation was highly unstable, with right-wing parties and the Popular Front engaging in street violence and accusing the government of failing to maintain public order. On July 12, 1936, Falangist gunmen assassinated...

Insignificance and Causes of the Spanish Civil War

A mechanistic vision of the conflict sought to put an end to disorder and fear, as the ruling classes were displaced from their hegemonic position by the social revolution of the Popular Front Republic. The Spanish Civil War was a dramatic and bloody confrontation, in addition to a class struggle between the bourgeoisie and the proletariat. Some see it as a preface to the Second World War. As described in works by Hemingway, Europe was plunged into the economic crisis of the 1930s and the political crisis of Western democracy.

The Military Coup and the Start of the Civil War

General Mola was the director of the coup, enlisting the Navarrese Carlists. His plan consisted of a statement in all key...

Spanish Civil War: Major Campaigns & Turning Points

Madrid's Defense and Early War Struggles

For greater safety, the Republican government moved to Valencia. Madrid resisted thanks to the International Brigades and an anarchist column led by Durruti, where he died. The battles raged around Madrid, and the conflict grew in the north. Foreign aid flowed to both sides. Having failed to enter the capital, the rebels launched two maneuvers to isolate Madrid, especially targeting the Valencia road. The insurgents planned an attack to cut this off, leading to the Battle of Jarama, which featured intense dogfights. In Guadalajara, Italian forces sent by Mussolini suffered a significant defeat at the hands of the International Brigades.

The Northern

Cold War Origins

If at the Yalta Conference, Stalin, Roosevelt, and Churchill agreed on how to solve problems involving the termination of the war, the Potsdam Conference made it clear there was distrust and suspicion among the victors: Stalin, Truman, and Attlee.

Key Tensions and Conflicts

The Question of Iran

Iran was occupied during the war by the Soviet and British armies. American intervention forced the withdrawal of the Soviets.

Soviet Expansionism in Eastern Europe

After the war, Stalin did not keep his promise to hold free elections in Eastern European territories liberated by the Soviet advance.

The Question of Greece

In 1946, Greece was in civil war between communist guerrillas and the democratic government. The UK, alarmed by the Soviet...

The Spanish Civil War (1936–1939)

The Spanish Civil War took place between 1936 and 1939. On July 17, 1936, the conflict began at the headquarters in Melilla. By July 18, the military rebellion—the name chosen by the Spanish Armed Forces after the dissolution of the volunteer militias formed in 1936 to counter the coup—extended across Spain. However, in most cities, the coup failed, and what was intended as a swift takeover became a protracted civil war.

The Republican government received support from the Soviet Union, which mobilized the International Brigades. Mexico also provided assistance, having recently emerged from the Mexican Revolution. Western democracies, including France, the United Kingdom, and the United States, decided to...

The Struggle for Succession

After Lenin died in 1924, two candidates vied for succession: Leon Trotsky and Joseph Stalin. The former defended the idea of a world revolution, while the latter advocated for 'socialism in one country'. Stalin ultimately became the successor.

Social and Economic Policies

Stalin's rule brought significant changes, including centralized economic planning and the collectivization of the countryside. Abandoning the New Economic Policy (NEP), Stalin opted for rigorous economic planning through a series of Five-Year Plans.

The First Five-Year Plan (1928-1932)

The first plan was initiated on October 1, 1928. Its objectives were:

• The disappearance of the private sector.
• The specialization of technical training.
• The development

The Rise and Crisis of Democracy

The peace treaties that put an end to World War I led to the emergence of new states in Europe. In the majority, parliamentary governments were established, making democracy the dominant political system. Key characteristics included:

• Recognized individual rights: freedom of opinion, expression, belief, and movement.
• Free elections and equality before the law.
• Trade union freedom and the emergence of universal male suffrage.

Women's suffrage also began to be established in some countries. In contrast to these ideologies, the extreme left, following the lines of the Soviet Union, advocated for the "dictatorship of the proletariat." Communism served as a working-class alternative to democracy.

Western Democracies

France

The Dawn of Spanish Democracy: The 1977 Elections

The first democratic elections were announced for 1977. Several key political forces emerged to contest the vote:

Key Political Forces and Leaders

• Unión de Centro Democrático (UCD): Led by Adolfo Suárez, this party comprised various center-right tendencies.
• People's Alliance (AP): Founded by the right wing following the death of Franco.
• PSOE (Spanish Socialist Workers' Party): Defined by democratic socialism, its key leaders were the young Sevillians, **Felipe González** and **Alfonso Guerra**.
• PCE (Communist Party of Spain): Remained on the left, led by historic figures such as **Santiago Carrillo** and **Dolores Ibarruri**.

Election Results and Outcomes

The elections of June 15, 1977, resulted...

Key Figures of the Spanish Restoration and Early 20th Century

Antonio Cánovas del Castillo: Architect of the Restoration

Antonio Cánovas del Castillo, a prominent historian and member of the Liberal Union, served as a Minister under Isabel II. Since 1873, he was the chief proponent of the Alfonsine cause. He became Head of Government after the Bourbon Restoration in 1875 and was the primary inspiration for the 1876 Constitution.

Cánovas ruled without interruption between 1875 and 1881, establishing the system of *turnismo* (the duty of parties to alternate power). He led the Conservative Liberal Party (often referred to simply as the Conservative Party) until his assassination in 1897. Cánovas is considered the key figure of the Bourbon Restoration....

Proclamation of the Second Spanish Republic

April 12, 1931: In the elections called by the royalist government of Admiral Aznar, the Republicans achieved a significant victory, especially in large cities. On April 14, Éibar proclaimed the Republic, and the movement spread to other cities. Consequently, Alfonso XIII went into exile. The revolutionary committee assumed the government and proclaimed the Second Republic in the Puerta del Sol. Elections to Parliament were convened for June 28. The interim government launched urgent ministerial decrees addressing agrarian reform, the army, and the initiation of negotiations for Catalan and Basque autonomy. These measures faced opposition from landowners, entrepreneurs, and the Catholic hierarchy....