Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and exercises for History for Baccalaureate

The Habsburg Political Model: Polysynody

The Hispanic Monarchy in the 16th century consisted of a set of realms and territories dispersed across the globe, yet maintaining a significant degree of autonomy. The Crown of Castile was not only the richest and most populated territory, but it also offered the monarch more facilities for the exercise of absolute power.

Consequently, the establishment of Madrid as the capital and seat of the court since 1561 defined the Habsburg political model as a Polysynody—a system of government by synods or councils.

Structure of the Polysynodal System

The system relied on various councils:

• State Council: Established by Chancellor Gattinara, this council represented the unity of the monarch and his powers, dealing

The Revolutionary Sexenio: Spain, 1868–1874

Causes of the 1868 Revolution

Unrest provoked the revolution. The economic crisis was of great intensity, characterized by three major events:

• A financial crisis.
• An agricultural crisis.
• The alarming increase in unemployment.

The political crisis was equally important. The Elizabethan regime had become increasingly reactionary in the hands of a clique of Moderates, to whom the Queen showed clear favoritism. In August 1866, Progressives and Democrats signed the Pact of Ostend, aiming to remove the Queen and establish a new political system.

The Glorious Revolution and Provisional Government

The Glorious Revolution, which began on September 17, 1868, started with the revolt of Admiral Topete, supported by...

Bolívar emerged as a leader during the campaign for emancipation in 1813. With 70 men, he built an army of experienced officers. They followed him with confidence, each knowing what was expected in skill and courage. The civilian population also began to contribute to the common defense. These masses, who once formed the First Republic, became soldiers who fought in the plains, at sea level, and in the mountains, learning to fight on the battlefield itself.

From that moment, despite defeats, betrayals, and disappointments, there were significant victories, adhesions, and unwavering faith in the triumph of an ideal: the absolute independence of America.

However, at this stage, the lack of national consciousness and the remoteness of the ideology...

Ferdinand VII of Spain: A Tumultuous Reign

In 1813, peace was signed between France and Spain in Valençay, recognizing Napoleon's King Ferdinand VII of Spain.

Upon his arrival, Ferdinand found a country:

• Socially: Divided even in classes, with the courts of Cádiz lacking validity.
• Demographically: The population decreased significantly due to the War of Independence.
• Economically: Ravaged by war, with destroyed infrastructure and a lack of manpower. Communications were destroyed, interrupting trade and communication with America.
• Politically: Divided ideologically between absolutist realists and liberals.

Ferdinand returned to Spain in March 1814. On his way to Madrid, he was intercepted by General Elio, an absolutist, near Valencia. The Manifest

The Crisis of the Reign of Charles IV (1788–1808)

The Monarchy of Charles IV and Manuel Godoy

Charles IV entrusted power to a young soldier, Manuel Godoy.

The execution of the French monarch, Louis XVI, urged Charles to declare War on France. The defeat of Spanish troops was decisive, and the Peace of Basel subordinated Spain to French interests. Alliances with France subsequently resulted in conflict with Britain.

The destruction of the Franco-Spanish fleet (notably at Trafalgar) meant the loss of almost the entire fleet of Charles IV.

The naval disaster deepened the crisis of the Royal Treasury, compounded by reduced income, especially from colonial trade due to the decline of maritime traffic. Godoy resorted to borrowing, increased contributions,...

Leonardo Chirinos Insurrection (1796)

1. Occurred near Coro, considered the first independence movement in Venezuela.
2. Supported by more than 3,000 enslaved Black people who lived in the Coro area.
3. The Creoles refused to emancipate the enslaved Black people.
4. Proclaimed the freedom of enslaved people.
5. Failed; Chirinos was beheaded and his head displayed in the outskirts of major cities in Venezuela.

Gual and Spain Conspiracy (1797)

1. Located in La Guaira and spread from there to Caracas.
2. Found support among middle sectors of society, including artisans and Pardo (mixed-race) military personnel.
3. Defended the slogans of the French Revolution.
4. Juan Bautista Picornell, who had led a coup attempt in Spain, facilitated the revolt for Gual and his partner.
5. Involved

Factors Behind the Weimar Republic's Collapse

The collapse of the Weimar Republic can be attributed to several interconnected factors, encompassing political, economic, and societal challenges.

Anti-Democratic Sentiments and Elites

Firstly, an anti-democratic mindset prevailed in Germany. The nation lacked a strong democratic tradition, having been a monarchy before the Republic. After World War I, Germany pledged to introduce democracy, but faced difficulties gaining support from democratic elites. Many influential figures were also anti-democratic.

Lack of Democratic Tradition

Many from the old ruling classes yearned for the 'glory of the monarchy' and actively opposed the Republic and democracy. These threats manifested in the murder of democracy...

The Pact of Tortosa and Early Federalism

The Pact of Tortosa (1869) was a foundational document aimed at promoting a Spanish federal state that took into account the historical reality of the ancient Crown of Aragon.

The First Spanish Republic (1873)

Shortly thereafter, in 1873, the First Spanish Republic was established. A new constitution (1873) defined Spain as a federal republic composed of seventeen states (approximately corresponding to the current regions).

However, the First Republic lasted a very short time, primarily due to a lack of reinforcement and strong conservative opposition. It was unable to implement the constitutional framework. The failure of the republic caused the republican movement to fragment and lose influence.

The Rise

The Comunero Revolt in Castile

King Charles I and the Seeds of Discontent

In 1516, Charles I, son of Juana la Loca and Philip the Fair, and grandson of Ferdinand and Isabella (the Catholic Monarchs), was named King of Castile and Aragon. He immediately presented his candidacy for Holy Roman Emperor. Elected emperor in 1519, Charles I sought to borrow money from the Castilian cities to finance his imperial coronation.

This increase in taxes caused widespread discontent, leading to the uprising known as the "Communities of Castile" or the Revolt of the Comuneros.

The causes of the rebellion were multifaceted. Crop failures and ensuing famine in the early sixteenth century played a significant role. Additionally, there was dissatisfaction among some...

Spanish Civil War: Military Operations & Aftermath

Early Military Operations (1936)

The military operations of the war began with the uprising, known as the "war of columns." The rebels failed in their attempt to take Madrid in early November 1936. After crossing the Strait, African troops, Legionnaires, and regulars commanded by Yagüe linked up with the northern revolt, after overcoming resistance in Badajoz. Franco took Toledo in September and ended the siege of its Alcázar. The heroic resistance of Madrid concluded the militia phase of the war, also known as the phase of advancing toward the Mediterranean.

Republican Counter-Offensives & Nationalist Advance (1937-1938)

In 1937, the Republicans were led by Vicente Rojo. They tried to...